A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)

Editor’s Note
This special edition is a collectanea of review papers on issues related to education
administration in several areas from the not-very-common area of estate management which a
number of teachers appear to take for granted but could make huge difference to teaching
outcomes. The Editors appreciate the support of Tertiary Education Trust Fund in this effort.
1 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
Ohia, Ben-Fred (Ph.D), Department of Ogba Language, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers
State, Nigeria.

ISSUES AND PROSPECTS OF SEX DIFFERENCE AND GENDER DIALOGUE: AN
INTERROGATION OF THE CONSEQUENCE OF THE GENDER SIGNIFICATION.
by
OHIA, BEN-FRED (PH.D)

Abstract
Sex difference is a divine initiative that is meant for the optimum development of human
kind. However, Society has capitalized on certain characteristics of the sexes as well as exploited
same for the oppression of particularly the female gender. This, womenfolk regard as crime of
patriarchy against matriarchy. This work seeks to examine the social conception of gender
signification and proposes that meaningful progress depends on the willingness of the genders to
engage in honest dialogue.
Keywords: Issues and prospects, Sex difference, Gender dialogue, Interrogation, Gender
signification.
Introduction
Human life is structured in relation to the aspirations and expectations or constraints
which the Society designs for the two sexes. Emile Durkheim calls this phenomenon “Social
Fact” due to the coercive influence it imposes on people (P. 7). According to Eakins and Eakins
(1978), sex refers to the biological difference between “females and males” – differences in the
genetic and reproductive functions” (P.4). The society has invented certain attributes around the
sexes to sustain the ethics of each system. The male and female beings are assigned distinct
characteristics and are evaluated differently, depending on social worth. This work proves the
nature of sex difference and interrogated its impact on gender relations within intellectual space.
Society’s Social Preception of Sex Difference
To a larger extent, the Society determines an individual’s responses to reality. Eakins and Eakins (1978) corroborate this notion when they stated that “Our Religious, Educational and political Institutions promulgate attitudes along sexist biases…patterned behavior from our
unwritten but ever present cultural files of what females do and what males do” (P.5).
The above confirms the comment by Hess et al (1985) that “the character of our
relationship with others is strongly influenced by nature of our environment” (P.178).

Their survey shows one outstanding consequence of fragmenting human beings along gender roles.
“We become gendered persons living in the gendered world, thinking gendered thought.
Depending on the culture, these gendered roles can overlap or be so different that men and women have difficulty in understanding one another’s experience” (P.193). This affirms Webster’s
definition of gender as “socially constructed difference which forms the basis of inequality, oppression and exploitation between the sexes” (P.72).
From the foregoing, it is obvious that individual responses to reality are more or less
external manifestation of gender roles which have been internalized over a period of time. A
research conducted by Rosencrantz et al (1968) on sex role stereotype reveals that the male is
readily accepted as being active, aggressive, ambitious, dominant and independent while the
female is to be gentle, emotional, quiet or talkative, caring but insecure (P.291). Okereke (1998)
affirms this when she shows the differential treatment colonial education meted to both sexes. It
stressed feminine qualities of gentleness and morality for the female while masculine qualities
of the “valor, fearlessness, boldness, aggressiveness, endurance” were emphasized for the
male. Since education virtually prepared the female for the service of men, black women both in
Africa and in the Diaspora “have become late comers on the political, economic and literary
spheres” (Pp.117-8).
As a result of this, gender ascription has featured prominently in both oral and written
literature from the classical to the Elizabethan and down to the modern age, with the male
presented as the voice of literary enterprise. African literature was loaded with the “male voice”
until the rise of feministic works in African literature. In essence, the male and female children
are socialized differently: The former is grounded to be a conqueror while the latter is trained to
serve his needs. The prominence given to male traits as attributes that are positively valued has
culminated in the institutionalization of male dominance. The female is planted in domestic
space as a wife and mother, positions which are sustained by the assumption that she lacks
abstract thinking skills for public life when compared with men. This accounts for the
centralization of male experiences as universal and the consequent marginalization of female
issues in most spheres of human endeavor.
prominently in both oral and written literature from the classical to the Elizabethan and
down to the modern age, with the male presented as the voice of literary enterprise. African
literature was loaded with the “male voice” until the rise of feministic works in African
literature. In essence, the male and female children are socialized differently: The former is
grounded to be a conqueror while the latter is trained to serve his needs. The prominence given
to male traits as attributes that are positively valued has culminated in the institutionalization of
male dominance. The female is planted in domestic space as a wife and mother, positions which
are sustained by the assumption that she lacks abstract thinking skills for public life when
compared with men. This accounts for the centralization of male experiences as universal and
the consequent marginalization of female issues in most spheres of human endeavor.
The privilege of the male, Head (1977) adds, means that females are identified as “need
meter to others” (P.69). Rousseau (1974) popularized this in Emile where, he advocated that the
women’s education must be planned in relation to male. Human existence therefore, from its
earliest time, emphasized the male-female dichotomy as scholarship in various fields of
intellectual endeavor shows. In Judeo-Christian worldview, both sexes are created equal but the
female is subdued under the male as a result of the fall, especially since an aspect of the curse
stipulates that “(her) desire shall be to thy husband and he shall rule over thee” (Gen 3:16). Ever
since, “the daughters of Eve” appear to be condemned by providence to dependence and
invisibility, a motif which receives a temporary relief in the regenerative role of the Virgin
Mary. This, female as both the serpent whose subtlety destroys her male counterpart and the
saint who provides the channel for Redemption of Humankind is the greatest legacy Religion
has given to world literature. This readily explains why gender theories from classical to the
modern age maintain male power and female subordination.
Drama, for instance, from its origin also emphasized sex difference because being a
component of ritual, the female was considered unfit for his sacred act. Thespsis, the first
known actor in Ancient Greece was male and even when Aeschylus and Sophocles introduced
the second and third characters, respectively, (Brocket 82) to enlarge the plot and add the variety
which the one-man performer could not achieve; female presence was seen a violation of
decorum. Even when the three major Greek tragedians later decided to create female roles,
women were fixed in the domestic space as conflict agents who caused the catastrophe of kings.
There is no doubt that the unequal treatment of the sexes is socially determined in
accordance with society’s perception of what woman is. Althusses’ (1971) “ideology and
ideological state apparatuses”, an essay in his work Lenin and Philosophy and other Essays
2 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
explains this situation. He uses ISA to explain and illustrate how social regulation can
effectively coerce people to willingly partake in their own exploitation (Pp. 171-2). This is why
the deployment of gender issue in literature, depending on the consensus provided by society
has assumed an ideological position in contemporary scholarship. Indeed, gender signification
has infiltrated every aspect of human endeavor and literature is invoked to maintain its
relevance.
These gender roles, interestingly, were designed by men on behalf of women because
the female voice was muted in literature from the classical to the beginning of the modern age.
Yet this does not mean that women were not writing. Seen basically as “the angle of the house”,
the Victorian house wife wrote as a hobby. She used writing to express her inner expression on a
relief from drudgery of domestic life. But by this time she came to self-awareness, she lacked “a
room of one’s own”. An expression which Woolf (1957) in the book by the same title used to
refer to the space and the freedom that a woman needs in order to adequately articulate her
impression about life.
In the words of Eziegbo (1996), the problems which follow the female as an inferior
human being are rooted on the insistence by the society that “ a woman’s body makes a woman”
(P. 8). Thus, men use their privileged position in the society to exploit women by subsuming
their selfhood under designed mode of existence. They are conceived as wives and mothers and
stigmatized as prostitutes or courtesans because sexuality is the primary index for measuring
their worth. The distributionalisation of male dominance implies that the female is expected by
tradition to remain a marginal creature. Levin (1986) examines this problem with the Judeo-
Christian context in an essay entitled “Women as Scapegoats of culture and Cult…”
Since patriarchy is a viral component of all cultures which cuts across race and class,
black women in America, The Caribbean have experienced severe oppression even though their
problems go beyond ascription. And despite the attempt by black scholars and historian like
W.E.B. Dubious, Carter G. Woodson, John Franklin Frazier and others to revoke western myths
about blackness, the pressure form the dominant Anglo-Saxon culture sustained the denigration
of blacks in the new world for three centuries. How the exploitation of the blacks affected
women most since they lack bodily self-determination. Patriarchy regards women as a part of a
male estate; and so, women as writers and characters have confronted the status quo over their
oppression. This challenge to male authority has produced Chiweizu’s (1990) Anatomy of
female power where he inverts conventional definition of male authority, dismissing it as a
force.
Female exploitation is sustained by tradition because her oppression has become a
social fact. This accounts for the veneration and vilification of women in all cultures and the
resultant lower-social status that “makes them vulnerable to pressure or coercion in sexuality”
Sadik, (1996. P.3).
Head (1977) attributes this situation, to the fact that tradition has entrenched male power
by delegating to men “a supreme position in the tribe while women (are) regarded in a
congenital sense as being an inferior form of human life” (P.92). The superior position accorded
to men sustains their patriarchal conception of women and the society’s perception which
necessitate the geocentric re-interpretation of the male critical theory by women writers and
critics.
necessitate the geocentric re-interpretation of the male critical theory by women writers
and critics.
Sex Difference on Gender Relations: Feminist/Pluralist
Implication
The instances on and the exploitation of sex difference to suppress an aspect to the
3 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
human society, women in this instance, are fundamental to social relations. This is because the
exposure to formal western education has sharpened women’s consciousness. It has proved that
silence is not a virtue for women; a fact that destroys the Beti proverbs which says that “women
have no Mouth” (Okereke 1998). Speech in this situation is a sign of authority. It is a description
of male discourse and an act of self-assertion aimed at reclaiming the power which the female
lost when her voice was asphyxiated.
Since feminism is a reactionary ideology, feminist writers seek to re-design the world in
order to reflect women’s experience. This, according to Tan (1994), consists in creating a world
whose “all forms of oppression and all forms of humans harming humans are eliminated”.
Explaining the new agenda further, she states that this “means we interrupt oppression every
time we see it. It means recognizing our significance, knowing we can make the difference…”
(Pp.12-13).This world is not a utopia of escape neither is it necessarily a battlefield for the sexes.
Rather, it is an opportunity for the genders to re-examine the basis of social conception of sex
difference in order to explore avenues for realistic co-operation. Gender discipline is
necessitated by the fact that women see their roles beyond care-givers and need-meters to men.
They realized that an awareness of their inhumanity places a demand on them to ensure that
things go well for them as a group. This is because “Sexism devalues our humanness, our
goodness, ability and power as female and encourages us to compete to get male attention”
Stefanos (1996. P.5). The issue is that sex difference has been exploited for centuries to sustain
men’s dominion over women and the latter’s seemingly providential ability to internalized and
transcend suffering as a natural human condition. This situation prompted the National Council
on Women’s Right while meeting in Brazil on 26th August, 1986 to launch a campaign against the
suppression of women in the social system. Consequently, the pluralist introduced by feminism
has brought the “monolithic model of rationality, authenticity and truth”. Since the female in
literature is a male creation, feminist criticism has utilized the “internally persuasive language
“to interrogate the authoritative male voice which sustains gender differentiation and its
exploitation for the oppression of women.
Therefore, feminism, which Bardwick (1980. (P.5) describes as “an implicit rejection of
the lifestyle created by strongly coercive norms that defines and restricts what women are and
can do” seeks to recreate the female story. Feminist poetics, according to Elaine Showalter has
been divided into two distinct phases: the feminine criticism and gynocriticism. The former
regards women as readers of literature and sees all literary creations as emanating from the male
imagination but latter ignores the male critical theory and recreates as well as celebrating all
aspects of women experience (Price and Waugh Pp.93-5).
In practice, feminism depends on the context of human experience of the realities of each
society for understanding even though the oppression of women is a universal phenomenon.
Radical feminism advocates a female culture which subvert male culture exemplified by the
rejection of heterosexual relationship. It is anti-men and popularized lesbianism as a viable
alternative to heterosexual relations. Radical feminism is treated in the works of western
feminists such as Virginia Woolf, Elaine Showalter, Julia Kristeve, Carolyn Heibrum, Shirley
Anderner, Adrienne Rich among many others. Their view contrasts womanism in which is
black-centered and accomodationist. Black writers and critics who employ womanism in their
works include Zora Neale Hurston, Lorraine Hensbery, Toni Morrison, Paul Marshall, Flora
Nwapa, Zulu Sofola, Buchi Emecheta, Tess Onwueme and a few others.
The entry of women into creative enterprise has challenged tradition as the basis of
women’s powerlessness. This means that, women’s right to speech and their commitment to
retaining power over the world has problematized gender relation. The male and the female
viewpoints in literary scholarship are plagued by varying degrees of insecurity consciousness;
each group has shown a desperate effort to be heard which tends to effect subject of discourse.
4 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
The problematized gender relation suggests that women scholars and theorists are constantly
exploring a grammar of possibilities with which to signify the multifaceted nature of women
experience. The home video is the latest tool for the exploitation of sex difference to deform
women, a situation discussed by many scholars. This shows that gender dialogue must extend to
the electronic media through the participation of women directors and producers in films. The
commercialization of female sexuality through the electronic media notwithstanding, the print
media has remained an outstanding medium for few writers to stamp their creative impacts on
the literary scene.
From the foregoing, the social conception of sex difference has promoted literary
dialogue between the genders. But in most cases each gender is constrained by the insistence on
sex difference and its exploitation for the fragmentation of human experience. Since both
patriarchy and feminism thrive on chaos, the panacea for gender warfare is a synthesis of the
male and female viewpoints because the pluralism of human experience imbued in the unity of
the sexes is fundamental to the development of human kind.
Conclusion
It is clear that no society can survive without its women, so people should accept
women’s complementary role to men rather than enforce sex difference. There is the need to
create genuine dialogue which is found in Osammor (1996) The Triumph of Water Lily.
It is useful to recognize gender difference, but it is unnecessary to exploit it for the
suppression of any gender. Human relations should be placed above the limitations,
exploitations and the acrimonies which the generalized and sexualized nature of our society
brings on the sexes. There should be an egalitarian society where women are neither spineless
creatures nor demons’ incarnate, but credible individuals. In the same vein, men are not
oppressors of women but partners in progress. Consequently, men and women of any class
ought to accept each other as rational beings that embody nature’s limitless resource on equal
proportion. This awareness will foster greater understanding between the genders and also
address injustices of the past which were authenticated by tradition.
unnecessary to exploit it for the suppression of any gender. Human relations should be
placed above the limitations, exploitations and the acrimonies which the generalized and
sexualized nature of our society brings on the sexes. There should be an egalitarian society
where women are neither spineless creatures nor demons’ incarnate, but credible individuals. In
the same vein, men are not oppressors of women but partners in progress. Consequently, men
and women of any class ought to accept each other as rational beings that embody nature’s
limitless resource on equal proportion. This awareness will foster greater understanding
between the genders and also address injustices of the past which were authenticated by
tradition.

References
Althusses, L. (1971). Lenin and philosophy and other essays; New York: London monthly
review press.
Bardwick, J.M. (1980) Women in Transition; How Sexual Liberation and the Search for Self-
Fulfillment have Altered our Lives. Sussex: The Harvester Press.
Bauer, D.M. and Susan M. (1991) Introduction “Feminism, Bakhtin and the dialogic, Albany:
University of New York Press, Pp.1-6
Brockett, O.G. (1978) The Theatre: An introduction. New York: Hoit Reinhart and Winston.
Chiwezu (1990) Anatomy of female power; Lagos: Pero Press.
De Beauvoir, S. (1953) The second sex ed. And Trans. H.M. Parshely, Hardmonds worth:
Penguin.
5 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
Durkheim, E. (1933) Division of labour in society; Trans. George Simpson London: Collier –
Macmillan.
Eakins, B.W. and G Eakins. (1978) Sex difference in human communication. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Eko, E. and Imo E. (2002) “Female portraiture in Nigerian films: an analysis of dark goddness
and true confession”. NDUNODE Calabar Journal of the Humanities 3/2: Pp.170-181.
Emenyi, I (2001) “Gender and culture dialogue in the works of selected African and African
American playwrights” (Unpublished). A Doctoral Thesis of University of Calarbar.
selected African and African American playwrights” (Unpublished). A Doctoral Thesis of
University of Calarbar.
– —- (2001) “Women as a symbols of patriarchal capitalism in dark goddness and true
confession” Gender Issues and National Development 2/1: Pp.33-42.
Eziegbo, T.A. (1996) Gender issues in Nigeria: A feminist perspective. Lagos: Vista Books.
Head, B. (1977) The collector of treasures; London: Heinemann.
Hess, B.B. Elizabeth M. and Peter J.S. (1985) Sociology. New York: Macmillan.
6 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)

CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN AFRICA: THE ROLE OF INDIGENOUS
CONFLICT RESOLUTION MECHANISMS
by
ENYADIKE SUNNY CHUKS & IJUYE-DAGOGO, CHARLES SIKIBO

Abstract
Conflict is a fundamental part of human interaction. From Liberia in the west to
Rwanda in the east; from Libya in the north to Angola in the South, Africa has been a hot bed for
violent conflicts. This is why practitioners and academics alike lay emphasis on conflict
resolution mechanisms. This paper uses secondary data and content analysis to describe the
various mechanisms for resolving conflicts in Africa. This paper concludes that conflicts in
Africa can better be resolved by combining western methods (mediation, negotiation,
conciliation, etc) with indigenous conflict resolution mechanisms.
Key words: Conflict, conflict resolution, arbitration, mediation, indigenous conflict,
resolution.
Introduction
Africa’s history is one with a number of examples of conflicts. From Liberia to Sierra
Leone, Congo, Nigeria, Sudan, Angola and Mozambique (to name a few) there have been
recorded instances of conflicts. Conflict is an inevitable aspect of human existence and
interaction. As long as human beings interact, there is bound to be contradiction of interests.
Conflict is not entirely a negative phenomenon. If managed effectively it can lead to progress.
According to Albert (2001), there is nothing wrong with conflict, it is a crucial mechanism by
which goals and aspirations of individuals and groups are articulated; it is a channel for
definition of creative solutions to home problems and a means to the development of a
collective identity. With this in mind, it is important that conflicts in Africa be resolved and
managed.
This paper analyzes the concept of conflict, conflict management and conflict
resolution. It looks at the various mechanisms for resolving conflicts in Africa. Such
mechanisms include: negotiation, mediation, conciliation, arbitration and peace keeping. The
indigenous mechanisms to conflict resolution is also explored in this work. However before
delving in the subject matter, let us look at Morton Deutsch’s theory of conflict resolution.
Morton Deutsch’s Theory of Conflict Resolution
Morton Deutsch is an American psychologist who has made significant contributions to
the study of conflict resolution. Central to his work has been the issue of making conflict
productive rather than eliminating it (Wani, 2011). Deutsch has been guided by five
assumptions: (a) Each participant in social interaction responds to the other in terms of his
perception and cognition of other. (b) Each participant in social interaction being cognizant of
the other’s capacity for awareness, is influenced by his own expectations concerning the other’s
actions as well as by his perceptions of the other’s conduct. (c) Social interaction not only
initiated by motives but also generated new motives and alters old ones. (d) Social interaction
takes place in a social environment, in a family, a group, a community, a nation, a civilization-
Enyadike Sunny Chuks, Department of General Studies, Captain Elechi Amadi Polytechnic, Port Harcourt &
Ijuye-Dagogo, Charles Sikibo, Department of History and Diplomatic Studies, University of Port Harcourt
7 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
that has developed techniques, symbols, categories, rules and values that are relevant to human
interaction. (e) Even though each participant in social interaction, whether an individual or a
group, is a complex unit composed of many interacting subsystems, it can act in a unified way
towards some aspects of environment. Deutsch believes that conflict resolution is primarily
governed by the development of skill. The more skillful the party, the more likely that the
conflict will be resolved. Deutsch has been a forerunner in emphasizing the subjective nature of
conflict. In Deutsch’s view, the probability of conflict erupting is linked to certain factors.
These factors are contact and visibility of differences, perceived, incompatibility, and
perceived utility of conflict. (Wani, 2011).
Clarification of Conceptions
Conflict
Conflict like all social concepts cannot be boxed into a unilateral acceptable definition,
as attempt to mono-conceptualized it seems to generate a lot of controversy. For the purpose of
this paper, we proffer some definitions thus: Dougherty and Flatfgraff (1971) define conflict as
a condition in which one, identifiable group of humans beings (whether tribal, ethnic, socioeconomic,
political, amongst others) is engaged in conscious identifiable human groups
because these groups are pursuing goals. Similarly, Miall et al (2003) posit that conflict entails
an expression of the heterogeneity of interests, values and beliefs that arise as new formations
generated by social change come up against inherent constraints. Conflict is therefore an
intrinsic and inevitable aspect of social change that can also be seen as the pursuit of
incompatible interest and goals by different groups. (Bakut, 2012).
The above definitions when coalesced, lend themselves to the fact that conflict is
intrinsic avoidable in all human endeavors, essentially due to the struggle over values, claims to
status, power, resources and prestige in which the aims of the combatants are to neutralize,
injure or eliminate their rivals. The recent conflict in South Sudan, Mali, Syria and Ukraine
emblematizes this scenario. Conflict can thus be considered as a social necessity and a normal,
functional and indeed inevitable aspect of the healthy functioning of all societies (Alli, 2012).
However, the concept of conflict has also been considered an obstacle to progress, political
stability, economic prosperity and overall socio-economic development because of its
destructive nature.
Conflict management
Conflict management according to John Burton (1990) connotes containment of
conflict through steps introduced to promote conditions in which collaborative and valued
relationships control the behavior of conflicting parties; in other words, conflict prevention. To
Best (2012), conflict management is a process of reducing the negative and destructive
capacity of conflict through a number of measures and by working with and through the parties
involved in that conflict. It is sometimes used synonymously with conflict regulation and
covers the entire area of handling conflicts positively at different stages, including those efforts
made to prevent conflict by being proactive. It also involves negotiation, mediation, arbitration
and reconciliation. For instance, the boundary dispute between Nigeria and Cameroun,
especially over the Bakassi Peninsula went through various stages of conflict management,
including the judicial pronouncement by the International Court of Justice in 2002. Generally,
conflict management involves a process of limiting the negative aspects of conflict while
increasing the positive aspects of it. The aim of conflict management is to enhance learning and
group outcomes, including effectiveness or performance in a given situation. The term is
perhaps an admission of the reality that conflict is a sine qua non to human affairs, but that not
all conflicts can always be resolved, therefore, what practitioners can do is to manage and
8 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
regulate them.
Conflict Resolution
Conflict resolution aims at identifying the main causes of a conflict so as to put an end to
the conflict to ensure sustainable peace. The United Nations Department for Economic and
Social Affairs (UNDESA, 2001) maintains that a conflict is resolved when the root causes of
that particular conflict are identified and addressed. Conflict resolution seeks to design
solutions through a joint problem-solving approach. When a conflict is successfully resolved,
the conflict is transformed and becomes a catalyst for deep-rooted enduring positive change in
individuals, relationships and structures (development), (UNDESA, 2001). Thus, successful
resolution of a conflict will ensure sustainable peace which would lead to improved security
and good relations among people which could lead to human well-being and general
development.
Conflict resolution brings an end to a conflict where the disputing parties are satisfied
and the conflict is genuinely and truly resolved. Many approaches and methods could be used
in conflict resolution. These include mediation through a third party intervention, negotiation,
alternative dispute resolution, collaboration, arbitration and conciliation. The appropriate
method may depend to a large extent on the nature and type of conflict involved (Best, 2006).
Generally, the various methods of conflict resolution are usually a process in that each requires
a certain procedure and time and not just a one way approach (Best, 2006). Godongs (2006)
maintains that mediation by third party (institutions and bodies) helps to identify the root
causes of conflicts in order to address them. Godongs believes that meditations are
collaborative and reconciliatory to help to design solutions through a joint problem-solving
approach to conflicts.
Causes of Conflicts in Africa
There is no denying the fact that Africa as a continent is plagued by a plethora of
challenges that breeds conflicts and stifle development. We will identify and explain each of
these challenges though not mutually exclusive.
Corruption
Most of the conflicts in Africa have their links to corruption. Corruption is a worldwide
phenomenon though endemic in the continent especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The monster
has been responsible for the instability in the continent as most of the countries, especially
Nigeria, Kenya; Congo DR, Egypt, etc. have prominently been on the lowest rating of
international corruption index. Corruption is not only about stealing funds. In Nigeria
especially, corruption has become an endemic problem threatening the country’s socioeconomic
and political development Ikyase (2004).
It is also about putting bad people in prime position. These are people who have neither
the passion (sincerity) nor the qualification (skills) to do the job. This form of corruption is
crippling Africa’s development. In some cases, corruption has attained levels of gross and
egregious theft for which no possible moral or historical justification can be advanced and
which has inevitably played a major role both in the impoverishment of continent and
specifically in the alienation of its people from their rulers. As the former president of Nigeria,
Olusengu Obasanjo (2000) noted:
Corruption has been responsible for the instability of successive
governments in Africa. Every coup that happened in Africa since then has
been in the name of stamping out the disease called corruption.
Unfortunately, the cure often turned to be worse than the disease. And most
9 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
of the African countries including Nigeria have been the worst for it”.
Corruption is worse than murder. It kills more than warfare; it takes land and money to
build a hospital and buy a private jet, condemning thousands of people over multiple generations
to die of curable diseases. (Ukago, 2013). Thus, the menace of corruption has to a larger extent
been responsible for the vicious cycle of failed political leadership, political instability,
economic mismanagement and underdevelopment as well as social class in Africa.
Bad Governance
There is a congruence of views amongst some scholars that endemic conflicts in Africa
arose as a result of bad governance. It is exercised through poor leadership. Most countries in
Africa such as Zimbabwe, Somalia and Guinea Bissau, etc. are afflicted by the cankerworm of
bad governance which invariably has negatively impacted on their developmental efforts. In the
words of Dike (1999), “there are many complaints about waste and inefficiency in performing
public service in Africa. There is lack of respect for fundamental human rights of citizens, lack
of judicious use of natural resources. In short, it has been said that most African countries
especially South Africa, Nigeria, Zimbabwe and many others have no respect for accountability
and transparency”.
According to Kofi Annan (cited in UNDP. 1997:20) without good governance, without
the rule of law, predictable and ministration, legitimate power and responsive regulation – no
amount of funding, no amount of charity will set us on the path of prosperity. For development
therefore to take place in any society, there must be serious transformation of the quality of
governance and this will go a long way in minimizing the various problems surrounding the
continent.
Ethno-Religious Conflict
Another challenge responsible for conflicts in Africa is the resurgence of ethno-religious
crisis. The efforts at reforming inter-ethnic relations in the continent have had very limited
success. The structural reforms like federalism in most countries in Africa and the associated
state creation exercise or even division into two countries, have transformed the countries
concerned such as Nigeria, Sudan, Kenya, Ivory Coast, etc. without directly solving the problem
of ethnic mobilization and conflicts. Apam (2011) infers that the community of conflicts in
Africa is indeed remarkable.
The pertinent question to be asked therefore, is what extent can ethnic and religious
violence be said to be expressions to primordial cleavages. In Nigeria for instance, there have
been different ethnic conflicts such that between Tivs and Jukuns over land, Fulanis and Idomas.
Berom and Tiv, etc. over grazing and farming resources which have claimed many innocent
lives and rendered citizens refugees in their own communities. In Rwanda, the hostility between
the Hutus and Tutsi in 1977, claimed the lives of 800,000 people mainly Tutsi. The genocidal
conflict is presently being handled by the International Criminal Court for all those found guilty
in its execution. The Boko Haram insurgency in the North Eastern part of Nigeria is another
debilitating conflict that has constricted development not only in Nigeria but the surrounding
countries and indeed the whole world.
Economic Crisis and Poverty
It is apt to state that conflicts in Africa have their structural links to the worsening
economic conditions and the attendant politics that have been implemented to get the continent
out of the wood. These perennial economic crises have produced intolerable living conditions
among the peoples of Africa as evidenced in the rising tide of poverty, unemployment, high debt
profile, increased cross border crimes amongst others. Apam (2011) contends that those in
10 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
dement conditions have led to not only the devaluation of human lives but have also promoted
scenario of protest, discontent insurrection and threats of violent changes in which responses
from the state have been marked by resilience, repression and authoritarian tendencies. Thus, if
the current economic conditions are not reversed, misery, riots, crimes and insecurity will
continue to be the order of the 21 century in Africa.
Leadership Dilemma
Leadership dilemma or question is one of the primary sources of conflicts in Africa.
Achebe (1984) using Nigeria as a frame of reference stated that the trouble in Nigeria, may be
Africa “…is simply and squarely a failure of leadership. There is nothing basically wrong with
the Nigeria character. There is nothing wrong with the Nigeria land, climate, water, air or
anything else. The Nigerian problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to
their responsibilities, to the challenges of personal example, which is the hallmark of time
leadership.”
Only recently, the Sultan of Sokoto, Alhaji Sa’ad Abubakar (2013) the spiritual leader of
all Muslims in Nigeria squarely blamed the elites for all the woes in the country. To him, the
elites are the main problems of Nigeria and most of the woes of the nation as they are now, were
brought about by them. The elites are the problems and not the colonial masters nor the teeming
masses of the country who are toiling daily, to put food on the table.
Corruption, nepotism, official high-handedness, tribalism, maladministration and all
manners of misdemeanor dominate the African landscape, thus the prevail dilemma. For
instance, several African states had or still have leaders that are richer than the states they
govern but this in itself is an invitation of disaster. On this Maafa (2013) reflected thus:
A leader should not be the richest man in the country where he can use his
leadership to get even more wealth. In Kenya members of parliament have
awarded themselves an annual salary of $100k in a country with a per capital of
$1.7k. This is equivalent to US representatives awarding themselves salaries of
$2.9m. Yet this is a democracy the west celebrates as the “way of the world”
while it bombs Mali for choosing another system.
It is therefore imperative that for Africa to overcome this challenge, it needs leaders that
will be accountable to the people, leaders that are embed with honesty, courage and above all
the fear of God in them.
Lack of Democratic Tenets
There is no gain saying the fact that most of the conflicts in Africa emanate from the
absence of true democratic practices by the practitioners. Successive governments in some
parts of the continent come to power through illegal means which provoke most of the citizens
to take up arms, thereby causing a lot of harm to societal stability. Democracy, which is a form
of government in which citizens in a state have political investments of political participation
and trust have been subverted by most countries in Africa. The uprising of conflicts in Nigeria
(2011, 2020), Ivory Coast (2010), Kenya (2007-2008), Libya (2012), Egypt (2013), etc. are
clear manifestations of non-adherence to democratic tenets. Consequently, African democracy
is characterized by lack of free and fair elections, abridgement of the rule of law, lack of
credible electoral commission, arson, thuggery, rigging, kidnaping, assassination of parents
and other vices intended to achieve an advantage. For development to take place in Africa, there
is need to adhere strictly to the tenets of democracy as enshrined in each nation’s constitution.
Boundary Disputes
The boundaries of all the African states were arbitrarily drawn by the colonial master
11 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
(at the Berlin Conference of 1885). This development bifurcated some ethnic groups into two
different countries such as the Hutu and Tutsis in Burundi and Rwanda, the Ewes in Ghana and
Togo, to mention but a few. Some of the conflicts in Africa are traceable to the boundaries
bequeathed by the colonialists. For instance, the land disputes between Nigeria and Cameroun,
especially over the Bakassi Peninsula; Morocco’s claim over the Western Sahara (SADR);
Libya’s claim of Aonzustrip with Chad and Ethiopia, Eritrea boarder conflict, all arose from
this historical fact. It is therefore incumbent on African leaders to resolve disputes peacefully
as did Nigeria and Cameroun than resort to war, which will deny it the resources that would
have been channeled for development.
Methods of Conflict Resolution
Africa as a continent is represented by a diversity of cultural and religious practices as
is also applicable to other continents of the world. The diversity affects the approaches to
disputes and conflict management. Conflict management as earlier stated is the process of
planning to avoid conflict where possible and organizing to resolve conflicts where it does
happen as rapidly and smoothly as possible. In Africa. The management of inter and intra state
conflicts has often taken one or a combination of the following strategies through, not
exhaustive, they include:
a) Negotiation
b) Mediation
c) Arbitration and
d) Peace-keeping.
Negotiation
The management of conflicts in Africa is most times resolved through negotiation.
Negotiations are simply defined as the process whereby the parties within a conflict seek to
settle or resolve their differences. Fisher et al (2000:115) defined negotiation as a structured
process of dialogue between conflicting parties about issues in which their opinions differ. To
Best (2006), negotiation is a direct process of dialogue and discussion taking place between at
least two parties who are faced with a conflict situation of dispute. The whole task of
negotiation generally is to reach an agreement through joint decision between the conflicting
parties. Conflict management in Africa through negotiation abounds, this is evident in the
boundary conflict between Nigeria and Cameroun where the AU and UN through the I.C.J.
played major roles in resolving the dispute without war and it concomitant effects. Similar
conflicts resolved through negotiation includes Nigeria and Benin Republic, Sudan and South
Sudan, Libya and Chad, etc.
Mediation
“Mediation is a flexible and highly varied process that includes any situation in which a
person gets involved in a conflict between two or more other people to help them resolve it, but
has no power to make anyone do anything in particular. Like a facilitator, the mediator is
primarily a ‘process person’ helping the parties define the agenda, identify and refraim the
issues, communicate more effectively, find areas of common ground, negotiate fairly and
hopefully, reach agreement.” (Oche, 2006:105). A mediator can be an individual, state,
institution or organization. A good mediator is someone both parties trust. Mediation was
useful in post-election conflict in Ivory Coast. Former President Obasanjo served as a mediator
between the two rivals; Laurent Gbagbo and Alassane Ouattara. In the same vein, former
President Jonathan mediated in the coup d’etat in Mali. Mediation was useful in post-election
conflict in Ivory Coast. Former President Obasanjo served as a mediator between the two
12 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
rivals; Laurent Gbagbo and Alassane Ouattara.
Conciliation
Another conflict management tool used in Africa to settle its conflict is conciliation.
Conciliation generally involves a third party activity aimed at persuading them to a peaceful
end of their difference. This strategy always has a conciliator who communicates separately
with the parties and pandas the assistance needed from neutral third party. The fundamental
position of the conciliation method of conflict management is to reduce tension among the
conflicting parties. In Africa, strong conciliations were used and still being used to quell the
conflicts in Mali, Guniea-Bissau, Egypt, Kenya, South Sudan, Ivory Coast and others.
Arbitration
Arbitration is also an effective strategyof conflict management in Africa. It involves the
use and assistance of a neutral third party in conflicts who has the evidence from both parties
and thereafter renders, a decision, usually called an award, which is expected to be building on
the parties. This strategy of conflict management and resolution was expressly used again,
between Nigeria and Cameroon in a boundary conflict where the International Court of Justice
at The Hague, Netherlands guide judgments on the land border of both countries from lack chat
to the tactic coast but crucially awarded the Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroon in 2002. This
judgment clearly nipped in the bud the nicely conflict that would have arisen had the two
countries not ceded to the I.C.J’s ruling.
Peace-Keeping
Peace-keeping is yet another of the eclectic strategies to resolve conflict in Africa. The
concept has its origin from the charter of the United Nations expressly enshrined in the charter
with its role held by Department of Peace-keeping Operation as a unique and dynamic
instrument developed by the Organization as a way to help resolve conflict in volatile areas.
Peace-keeping entails activities that tend to create condition that favour lasting peace. For the
United Nations, it is the stationing of neutral, lightly armed troops, as an interposition force
following a cease-fire to separate combatants and promote an environment suitable for conflict
resolution… (Furley and May, 1998:4).
This involves monitoring and observance of peace processes. The major aim of peace
keeping is to create security environment within which the conflict under dispute can be
negotiated. As Apam (2011) rightly observed, peace-keeping is a confidence-building
mechanism meant to ensure the contending parties in dispute that cease-fire agreement would
not be violated. Africa as a continent has been benefitting from the peace-keeping mechanism
of continental bodies such as the AU, ECOWAS, SADC, etc. and international organizations
like the UN, and AFRICOM. For example, countries like Liberia, Somalia, Burundi, Rwanda,
Guinea-Bussau, Sierra Leon, Congo Dr. Tanzania, Central African Republic, Chad, South
Sudan, to mention but a few have at various times benefitted from peace-keeping that
eventually resolved the conflicts in their domains.
Joint/Bilateral Commissions
Some countries in Africa have used the mechanism of joint or bilateral commissions in
solving conflicts on potentially explosive situations. For instance, the Chad Basin commission
which incorporates Nigeria, Cameroon, is one of such. The Bilateral commissions, between
Nigeria and Niger on the management of the River Niger and that between Nigeria and
Cameroon on the control of River Benue offer ample opportunities for conflict mitigation in
Africa.
13 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
Indigenous Conflict Resolution Mechanisms
Indigenous conflict resolution mechanism comprises social, economic, cultural and
religious-spiritual dimensions in accordance with the entirety of traditions, customs and world
views of a society within the different spheres of societal life. The methods involve
negotiations, mediations and reconciliations based on the knowledge, custom and history of the
community. The process is led by leaders of the community such as traditional chiefs, Kings,
priests, healers, elders and other tribal leaders and take the forms of rituals in which the whole
community takes part in it. Wealth exchanges, prayers and sacrificing to the gods/ancestors are
performed and there is often merry-making.
In traditional African societies, conflict is often resolved using laid down traditions
(Nwolise, 2005). This is because the restoration of peace, its maintenance and social harmony
are prime for the welfare of the entire society. According to Pkalya, Adan and Masinde (2004),
traditional society’s entities such as chiefs, elders of the community, extended families,
lineages, clans, tribes, religious brotherhood, local institutions and ethno-linguistic groups
remain important in the resolution process of conflicts. By western methods of conflict
resolution, I mean the use of formal and external bodies and structures in attempting to end a
conflict.
In distinguishing indigenous conflict resolution mechanism from western-style
Werberian/Westphalia methods of conflict resolution, Castro and Ettenger (1996) state that
indigenous conflict resolution mechanisms are not merely about adjudication of who is right or
wrong and the punishment of culprits, but the conciliation of the parties to end conflicts. The
main aim is the transformation of conflict in which both parties are satisfied and willing to “let
go their pain and forgive each other”. Boege (2006) describes this as “restitutive
reconciliation”. Thus, indigenous approaches to conflict resolution aim at restorative justice,
restoration of order, harmony and the maintenance of relationships within the community
through reintegrating feuding parties for true reconciliation.
Also, indigenous methods are holistic and consensus-based and often involve the
participation of all parties as well as the entire community. For instance, Tonah (2007) using
chieftaincy conflict that happened in the Wungu Province of the Mamprungu Kingdom in
Ghana, describes how indigenous methods of conflict resolution helped to end the chieftaincy
conflict in the Wungu Province. Statement Arose in 1996/97 following the rejection of the
Nayiri’s choice of Wunaba (Chief of Wungu) by a section of the people of Wungu. The rejection
led to the anger of the Nayiri and for a period of four years (1997-2001), the Nayiri’s choice was
never allowed to rule in Wungu. In 2002, the people who rejected the Nayiri’s choice begged for
forgiveness of the Nayiri and a process of reconciliation began that involved the sacrifice of
animals, merry-making in the entire community. A new chief was chosen by the Nayiri and
peace returned leading to an end of the conflict.
Westphalia method of conflict resolution such as the use of the court system and the use
of foreign NGOs do not lead to proper resolution. The court system often leads to blame and
punishment of some factions which tend to aggravate hostility among the conflicting factions
and leads to the escalation of violence. Similarly, Agyeman (2008) maintains that the
involvement of foreign and international NGOs in conflict resolution do no often lead to real
conflict resolution at the local level. This is because most of these foreign NGOs do not know
the local roots and dynamics in these conflicts and are not therefore in position to prescribe
local solutions to the real termination of conflicts . He therefore calls for the use of local entities
such as the house of chiefs and community based organizations in resolving local conflicts.
In addition. Kirby (2006) believes that western-conventional methods of conflict
resolution in Northern Ghana have failed in resolving conflicts. Many of the parties in these
conflicts have resorted to the court system of resolution and use of foreign NGOs which have
14 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
not helped to address the root causes underlying them. Kirby (2006) states that conflicts need to
be understood in the milieu of cultural context rather than adopting western methods which are
not culturally sensitive and contextual to many of the conflicts around us. The key to good
conflict resolution requires entering deeply into cultural issues at all levels and also considering
the ritual dimensions to the issues at conflict.
Kirby observes further that conflict resolution in Northern Ghana and elsewhere in
Africa is not a two dimensional “negotiation” between the combatants, but involves a three
dimensional “reconciliation” between the combatants and more importantly for all others
suffering the negative effects of the conflict though not directly involved. Kirby (2006) posits
that addressing ethnic conflicts in Northern Ghana and elsewhere demands using local beliefs,
values and attitudes as well as local contexts, procedures, actors and practices. These beliefs,
values and practices must engage an understanding of local cultures of reconciliation based on
African Traditional Region (ATR). The rituals with regard to the earth cult in most tribes in the
Northern Ghana play important roles in conflict resolution and conciliation and these rituals of
the earth cult involves sacrifices, prayers and appeasing the spirits for proper reconciliation to
take place. This is unlike western-style resolution of conflicts which imposes “foreign”
methods and practices into conflicts making it difficult for true reconciliation to take place. In
all, indigenous methods of conflict resolution are all encompassing methods that combine a
number of conflict resolution mechanisms including mediation, negotiation and reconciliation.
Conclusion
From the fore going, this paper looked at the concept of conflict, conflict management
and conflict resolution. Conflict is an intrinsic and inevitable aspect of human life that stems
from the pursuit incompatible goals and interests by individuals or groups. Conflict
management is the process of limiting the negative aspects of conflicts. Conflict resolution is
the process of ending conflicts by identifying the root causes and addressing them. Some
common causes of conflict in Africa include corruption, bad governance, ethno-religious
conflict, economic crisis and poverty, leadership dilemma, lack of democratic tenets and
boundary disputes. These causes of conflict in Africa are not mutually exclusive. There are the
western prescribed models of conflict resolution. They include negotiation, mediation,
conciliation, arbitration, peace-keeping, etc. However, these methods ignore the role of
customs, heritage, traditional rulers, chiefs, spiritualists and elders and the African way of
resolving conflicts. This paper concludes by recommending that the methods of conflict
resolution employed should always appreciate the indigenous mechanisms and synergize both
to ensure that the positive parts of conflicts outweigh the negative.
References
Agyeman, D. K (2008). Managing diversity and ethnic conflicts in Ghana Governance in the
fourth republic. Agyeman-Duah.B. (Digibooks Ltd, Tema Pp: 77-96.)
Alli, W. O. (2012). “The Impact of Globalization on Conflicts in Africa in Best S.G. (Ed). (2012)
Introduction to peace and Conflict Studies in West Africa, Ibadan: Sepectrum Books
Limited.
Apam, J. (2011), “Socio-Political Conflicts in Africa. Management and Resolution Strategies in
Nigerian Journal of Political and Administrative Studies Vol. 2, No. 2.
Bakut, T. B. (2012). “The Environment, peace and Conflict in Africa in Best, S. G. (Ed). (2012)
Introduction to Peace and Conflict Studies in West Africa, Ibadan: Sepectrum Books
15 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
Limited.
Best, S.G. (2012). “The methods of conflict resolution and transformation” in best s.g(ed),
(2012) in to peace and conflict studies in west africa, ibadan: Sepectrum Books
Limited.
Boege, V. (2006). Traditional approaches to conflict transformation: Potentials and limits.
Breghof Research Centre for Constructive Conflict Management. http://www.berghofhandbook.
nd(Accessed on July 12. 2018).
Burton, John and Frank Dukes, “Conflict Practice in Management, Settlement and
Resolution.” New York: St. Martin’s Press 1990, Pp. 10-51.
Castro, A.F. and Ettenger, K. (1996). Indigenous knowledge and conflict management:
exploring local perspective and mechanisms for dealing with community forestry
disputes. Paper Prepared for the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization,
community forestry unit, for the global electronic conference on “addressing natural
resource conflicts through community forestry. January-April 1996.
Dike, V.E (1999). “Leadership democracy and the Nigerian economy: Lesson from the Past
and Directors for the future, USA: Lighting Press.
Dougherty J.E. Platgraff, R.L (Jnr)(1971) “Contending Theories of International Relations”
New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
Ikyase, J.T. (2014) “One hundred years of nationhood and the challenges of nation building in
Nigeria being a paper presented at the international conference of the society for peace
studies and practice in university of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Kirby, J.P. (2006). The earth cult and the ecology of peace building in Northern Ghana. In
African knowledge and sciences: Understanding and supporting the ways of knowing
in sub-saharan africa, D. Miller, D. Kendie, S.B., Apusigah, A.A. Harverkot, B.(Eds.)
Barneveld: COMPAS. Pp. 129-148.
Miall Hugh, Ramsbotham Oliver, woodhouse Tom, “Contemporary conflict resolution, the
prevention management and transformation of deadly conflicts”. Polity press,
publication, U.K. 1999, p.65.
Nwosile O.B. ed. (2005). Traditional models of bargaining and conflict resolution in Africa:
perspective on peace and conflict in africa. Ibadan: John archers ltd.
Obasanjo, O. (2000), An address on the occasion of the formal signing of the bill of law to
prohibit and punish bribery and corruption of or by public officers.
Oche, D.O (2006). From dispute to dialogue: essay on conflict and conflict resolution.
Surulere: FOG ventures.
Pkalya, R., Adan, M and Masinde, I. (2004). Indigenous democracy; traditional conflict
resolution mechanisms, Kenya: Intermediate technology development group.
Ukaogo, V. (2013), “The end as the beginning juxtaposing Nelson Mandela’s legacy with
Africa’s dilemma”. Paper presented at a session in celebration in honor of the late South
African president, Kwararafa university, Wukari, Taraba State.
UNDESA. (2001), Training of trainers workshop on conflict prevention at Swedru, United
Nations.
Wani, H.A. (2011). Understanding conflict resolution, International journal of humanities and
social science. 1(2).
16 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
EFFECTS OF SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
TEST-ANXIETY AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL ADOLESCENTS
by
ORDUA, VICTOR NDUBUISI (Ph.D)
Abstract
Test anxiety has an impact on students either negative or positive and it manifests in
three component parts, namely the cognitive, emotional and psychological symptoms and does
not occur separately but simultaneously during the test anxiety crisis. This study investigated
the effect of systematic sensitization in the management of test anxiety among secondary school
adolescents. Two research questions were posed and two hypotheses formulated to guide the
study. The study is experimental designs and employed a 2×2 factional design pre test-post test
experimental control group. The instrument used for the selection of test anxious students was
Sarason test-anxiety scale (STAS). The students numbering 75 were selected from two
secondary schools who earned very high scores in the scale constituted the sample for the study
and were randomly assigned to the treatment group and control group. The data relating to the
research questions were analyzed using mean scores while the data relating to the hypotheses
were analyzed using the analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA). It was found out that systematic
desensitization were effective in the management of test-anxiety. The study further revealed
that the difference on effectiveness of systematic desensitization in the management of test
anxiety of male and female adolescents is not significant. Based on the findings of the study, the
implications of the findings and recommendation were highlighted.
Keywords: Systematic desensitization, test anxiety, management, evaluative task.
Introduction
Test anxiety has been described as a negative emotional reaction expressed by some students
during examination or when confronted with evaluative task. Such students usually perceived
the evaluative task as threatening, generalized feeling of fear over meeting the academic
expectation, inability to understand what is being taught in the class, uncertainties associated
with success (Ordua, 2011). According to Ergene (2003) defined test anxiety as a scientific
construct, referring to the set of phenomenological, physiological and behavioural responses
that accompany concern about possible negative consequences or failure at an examination or
at a similar evaluative situation.
Test anxiety has been considered to include physiological over-arousal, often referred
to as “emotionality”, along with dread worry and expectations of terrible failure (Ergene,
2003).
Bufka Barlors and David (2009) see rest anxiety as an emotional state in which people
feel uneasy, apprehensive or fearful. Spielberger (2005) explained test anxiety as an unpleasant
state characterized by feelings of tension and apprehension, worrisome through and activation
of automatic nervous system, when an individual faces an evaluative achievement demanding
situation. Based on this, there is the need for help and treatment of students with text anxiety.
This will enable the students perform at the best of their abilities. Although, there are a number
of research works on text anxiety in Nigeria for instance, Osiki and Busari (2006) have used
self-statements monitoring techniques in reducing test anxiety among adolescent
underachievers.
It has become important that the researcher use systematic desensitization in the
17 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
management of test anxiety among secondary school adolescent. Sheiter and Stone in Ordua
(2011) reported that the technique of systematic desensitization involves three steps of
operations, training in deep muscle relaxation and increasing anxiety – provoking imaginary
situation involving the phobic stimulus is repeatedly paired with a response that is
physiologically incompatible with fear and anxiety, such as deep muscular relaxation, starting
with the least frightening item and working up the hierarchy by degrees (Andrew, 2003).
anxiety stimuli from the hierarchies. The systematic desensitization is a technique of
“behavior therapy” used for treating “phobia in particular, in which each member of a hierarchy
of increasing anxiety – provoking imaginary situation involving the phobic stimulus is
repeatedly paired with a response that is physiologically incompatible with fear and anxiety,
such as deep muscular relaxation, starting with the least frightening item and working up the
hierarchy by degrees (Andrew, 2003).
The National Policy on Education (2003) allowed the posting of guidance counselors to
secondary schools in all states of the federal to assist student solve their educational,
vocational, social, psychological and vocational problems that abound following expertise
knowledge of the guidance counselors. The use of systematic desensitization technique in
helping students with test anxiety and solve their vocational, social and psychological
problems. It is against this background that the researcher wants to assess the effect of
systematic desensitization in the management of test anxiety among secondary school
adolescents
Statement of the Problem
Test anxiety is a negative emotional reaction expressed by some students towards
evaluative academic tasks, especially examination. Such students usually perceived the
evaluative tasks as the threatening. Test anxiety manifests in the three component parts, the
cognitive, emotional and physiological systems.
Test anxiety is a scourge for students generally. It has been found out to significantly
interfere adversely with students’ performance on laboratory tasks, intelligence tests,
achievement tests and workshop tasks, especially when it is of high level. This being the case,
there is the need to help and treat students with test anxiety to that they can perform at the best of
their abilities. Based on conveniences and expertise, some counselor use systematic
desensitization in helping students with test anxiety. It is against this background that the
researcher conceived ideas to assess the relative effects of systematic desensitization in the
management of test anxiety among secondary school adolescents.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of systematic desensitization
in the management of text anxiety among secondary school adolescents. Specifically, the
researcher sought to:
i. Determine how effective is systematic desensitization in the management of test
anxiety among secondary school adolescents.
ii. Determine the different in the effect of the treatment technique (systematic
desensitization) in the management of test anxiety among secondary school male and
female adolescents.
Research Questions
The conduct of this study was guided by the following research questions

1. How effective is systematic desensitization in the management of test anxiety among
   secondary school adolescents.
   18 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
2. What is the different in the effect of the treatment technique in the management of text
   anxiety among secondary school male and female adolescents?
   Hypotheses
   The researcher formulated the following null hypotheses to guide the study and was
   tested at 0.05 level of significance .
   i. There is no significant difference in the mean post-test scores of students who received
   treatment using systematic desensitization and those in the control group.
   ii. There is no significant difference in the mean of post-test scores of male and female
   secondary school adolescents who received treatment using systematic desensitization.
   Methodology
   The researcher design for the study is experimental study. According to Kpolovie
   (2010), experimental research design seek to allow for manipulation of at least one independent
   variable for the purpose of identifying or observing effect of the manipulation on one or more
   dependent variables. He further state that experimental research ensures dependable
   specification of the cause of such relationships through control and manipulation of the
   variables under investigation. The area of the study was Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni Local
   Government Area of Rivers State. The population of this study was 2000 adolescents from SS2
   in two secondary schools. A sample size of 75 high test anxious students as determined by their
   high scores on the Sarason’s test anxiety scale was selected.
   Instrumentation
   The researcher used Sarason’s test anxiety scale to elicit information on test anxiety. The
   instrument was a-39 Sarason’s test anxiety developed by Sarason(1972). The response was
   categorized into true or false rating scale. Their initial scores on the scale represented the
   baseline or pre-treatment data. The sample was randomly assigned to treatment group and
   control group.
   Finally, the pre-treatment and post-treatment scores of the subjects were compared
   separately for the technical and the control group and its effective and the control group and its
   effects in the management of test anxiety. Furthermore, the mean score of systematic
   desensitization was compared with the mean score of the control group whether the treatment
   group was effective in the management of test anxiety.
   The reliability of the instrument was reported by Sarason (1978) under test-retest
   reliability of 0.88 after several weeks internals adding that of Wagaman, Cormier and Cormier
   (1977) found test-retest reliability of 0.87. Akingboye (1978) reportedly an internal consistence
   reliability of x = -885 for Nigerian subjects.
   The researcher employed direct delivery technique in the administration of the
   instruments to the research subjects. This implies that the researcher administered the
   instruments personally to the respondents with the help of two (2) trained research assistants
   from the schools, one for each cluster. The data were collated to obtain mean scores and analysis
   of co-variance (ANCOVA) were used to analysis the null hypotheses.
   Results
   The results of the research questions and corresponding hypotheses are presented in
   tables and the discussion of the data in the tables is presented thereafter.
   Ordua, Victor Ndubuisi (Ph.D), Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, School of
   Education, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku
   19 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Research Question 1
   How effective is systematic desensitization in the management of text anxiety among
   secondary school adolescents.
   Table 1: Pretest and Post Test mean scores of students who received systematic desensitization
   and those in the control group.
   The data contained in table 1 showed pretest mean score of 50.72 and posttest mean
   score of 35.69 with mean loss of 15.03 for the students treated with the systematic
   desensitization as against pretest mean score of 51.26 and posttest mean score of 46.08 with
   mean loss as 5.18 for the students in the control group, hence the systematic desensitization was
   effective. But the posttest mean score 35.69 of the students treated was above the norm of
   34.54.
   Research Question 2
   What is the difference in the effect of the treatment technique (systematic
   desensitization) in the management of test anxiety among secondary school male and female
   adolescents?
   Table 2: Pretest scores and posttest scores of male and female secondary school students.
   Table 2 indicates that with the mean loss of 10.8393 and 15.088 for male and female
   students who received systematic desensitization, there was a difference of 4.6695. This shows
   that the effect of systematic desensitization in the management of test anxiety among secondary
   school students differ in terms of gender.
   Hypothesis 1
   There is no significant difference in the mean of posttest scores of students who
   received treatment using systematic desensitization and those in the control group.
   Table 3: ANCOVA on the mean scores of students treated with systematic desensitization and
   those in the control group.
   20 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Source of variation N Pretest
   mean
   Posttest
   mean
   Mean loss Remarks
   Systematic Desensitization 36 50.72 35.69 15.03 Effective
   Control Group 39 51.26 46.08 5.18
   Norms 34.54
   Source of variation N Pretest
   mean
   Posttest
   mean
   Mean
   loss
   Remarks
   Male 56 51.2679 40.4286 10.8393
   Female 57 52.0351 36.5263 15.5088
   Difference in their mean score 4.6695
   21 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Source of variation SS DF MS Cal. F Crit F P = 0.05
   Corrected model 2145.000a 4 536.250
   Intercept 689.557 1 689.557
   Pre-test scores 73.636 1 73.636
   Treatment models 1826.031 1 1826.031 63.487 3.98 S
   Error 2013.347 70 28.762
   Residual 130808.000 75
   Corrected Total 4158.347 74
   P=.05
   Table 3 showed that the 0.05 level of significance, 1 df numerator and 74 df denominator, the
   calculated F 63.49 was greater than the critical F 3.98. Therefore, systematic desensitization
   was significant in managing students test anxiety.
   Hypothesis 2
   There is no significant difference in the mean post-test scores of male and female
   secondary school adolescents who received treatment using systematic desensitization.
   Table 4: ANCOVA on the mean scores of male and female adolescents treated with systematic
   desensitization
   Table 4 revealed that at the 0.05 level of significance, 1 df numerator and 73 df
   denominator, the calculated F 3.64 is less than the critical F 3.99. Therefore, there was no
   significant difference in the mean scores of male and female adolescents exposed to systematic
   desensitization in the management of test anxiety among secondary school adolescents.
   Discussion of the Finding
   The study was designed to investigate the relative effectiveness of systematic
   desensitization in the management of test anxiety among secondary school adolescents.
   Findings from the data analyzed indicated that systematic desensitization is effective in the
   management of test anxiety among secondary school adolescents. This result supports the
   Source of variation SS DF MS Cal. F Crit F P = 0.05
   Corrected model 191.420a 4 47.855
   Intercept 711.551 1 711.551
   Pre-test scores 14.187 1 14.187
   Gender 97.747 1 97.747 3.64 3.99 NS
   Error 1850.864 69 26.824
   Residual 89845.000 74
   Corrected Total 2042.284 73
   P=.05
   earlier findings by Johnson and Sechrest (2007) that systematic desensitization has been
   effective in the management of test anxiety.
   The result from the data analyzed further indicated that there is no significant difference
   on the effect of systematic desensitization on the management of test anxiety among male and
   female students in secondary schools. This result from the study is in line with the finding from
   Egbochukwu and Obadon (2005) that sex had no significant effect on t eh reduction of test
   anxiety of students. The study further agrees with the reports of Bernstein (1996) and Nwankwo
   (1994).
   Implications
   The findings of the present study have certain far-reaching implications for counseling
   practice, personality assessment and the educational system. It provided a useful link between
   theory and practice. The theoretical prepositions behind the treatment technique have thus been
   tested to see how effective it is in management of test anxiety. Test anxiety as shown in this study
   is amenable to treatment particularly systematic desensitization in the improvement of students’
   academic performance.
   Therefore, efforts must be geared towards ensuring that practicing counselors as well as
   those in training acquire and employ skills-involving intervention techniques when dealing with
   students.
   Recommendations
   Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are hereby put forward:
3. Systematic desensitization should be adopted by school guidance counselors and other
   allied professionals as an effective treatment in helping test anxious students and for
   promoting students’ academic performance in schools.
4. Counseling should be an integral part of any educational institution, especially at the
   secondary school level in order to boost self-confidence and test taking ability of the
   students.
5. Government and school administrators should give adequate support to counselors and
   teachers alike, by providing conducive environment and giving adequate incentives to
   boast counseling activities in schools
   References
   Andrew, M. C. (2003). Oxford Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford University Press Inc. New
   York.
   Bernstein, D. A. (1996). Anxiety Management Behaviour Modification, Principles, Issues and
   Application. Boston: Houghton Miffilin Co.
   Bufka, L., Barlow, F., & David H (2009). “Anxiety” Microsoft Encarta (DVD). Retrieved, WA:
   Microsoft Corporation.
   Egbochukwu, E. O & Obadan, N. O. (2005). Effects of Systematic Desensitization (SD)
   Therapy on the reduction of test anxiety among adolescents in Nigerian Schools.
   Journal of instructional psychology, 3214. Retrieved on 12th August, 2020 from
   http://www.freepatentsonline.com
   Ergene, T (2003). Effective Interventions on test anxiety reduction. HaceHepe University:
   Turkey. www.amtaa.org/res/ergene.pdf
   Johnson, S. and Sechrest, L. (2007). Comparison of Desensitization and progressive relaxation
   in Treating Rest anxiety. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 32, 280-286.
   Kpolovie, P. J. (2010). Advanced Research Methods. Owerri: Springfield Publishers Ltd.
   Nwankwo O. C. (1994). The relationship between test-anxiety and academic achievement: An
   22 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   empirical approach. Nigerian Journal of Professional Studies in Education (1).
   Ordua, V. N. (2011). Effects of Systematic Desensitization and study-skills Training in the
   management of test-anxiety among secondary school adolescents. Journal of
   contemporary issues in vocational and technology Research (JOCIVOTER) Vo. 1 No.
   1
   study-skills Training in the management of test-anxiety among secondary school adolescents.
   Journal of contemporary issues in vocational and technology Research
   (JOCIVOTER) Vo. 1 No. 1
   Osiki, J. O. & Busari, A. O. (2006). Effects of Self-statement monitoring technique in the
   reduction of test anxiety among adolescents under achievers in Ibadan Metropolis.
   The Nigerian Journal of Guidance and Cousellling, 8 (1) 133-141.
   Sarason, I. G. (1978). Test Anxiety Scale Concept and Research. In Spielberger, C. D and
   Sarason, I. G (eds). Stress and anxiety. Vol. 5 Washington John Witey and Sons pp,
   193-216.
   Sarason, I. G. (1972). Experimental Approaches Test Anxiety: Attention and use of
   information. In Spielbeger, C. D (ed.) Anxiety current Trends in Theory and Research
   Vol. 11, New York Academic Press pp. 383-403
   23 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   THE INTERLOCKING NATURE OF LANGUAGE
   AND LITERATURE TOWARDS NATIONAL INTEGRATION AND COHESION IN
   NIGERIA.
   by
   DR. OHIA, BEN-FRED
   Abstract
   This paper focuses on the interlocking nature of language and literature towards
   integration and cohesion in Nigeria, to evaluate the contribution of language and literature in
   literacy and national development. The paper attempts a close examination of the process of
   integration and cohesion, the contribution of language and literature towards national
   integration and cohesion in Nigeria. The English Language in Nigeria is a literate language or a
   language Nigerians rely on to promote or enhance literacy as well as the development of human
   capital. This pictures the interlocking nature of language and literature in the overall
   development and cohesion of the country. The paper also examines the role of literature in the
   integration of the various cultures in Nigeria as Nigerian writers have in their various texts, used
   language to express the Nigeria perception and subvert the white’s egocentrism in favour of
   Nigerians. This paper therefore investigates the factors of integration and cohesion provided by
   language and literature in Nigeria, and comes up with a resounding conclusion that Nigeria’s
   unity in diversity can only be sustained by a good knowledge of language and literature.
   Keywords: Interlocking, integration, cohesion and development.
   Introduction
   The word ‘integration’ gives an idea of bringing parts into a whole, of removal of barriers
   that cause segregation. It involves unification, combination and cooperation. It is the method of
   combining separate parts into one monolithic entity. The integrationist is an apostle of
   unification, amalgamation, consolidation, homogenization and concatenation. All these roles
   language and literature perform in Nigeria. Nigeria as a multi-ethnic society exerts pressure on
   all its members, no matter their age, to continue to conform to the norms, values and laws of the
   country. But unfortunately every society has deviants who reject the values and break the rules.
   Disintegration and lack of cohesion occur when a society contains more deviants than
   conformists, as the case with Nigeria.
   Culture is the social inheritance that gives structure to our lives and is expressed in
   language and literature. It is cognitive, normative, and transmitted through the symbolism of
   language. Conflict theorists see culture as constantly in flux. Structural functionalist shares
   norms and values as the glue that holds society together. According to Nwabueze (2005),
   “Symbolic integrationists theorize that individual action can change culture. Values are what we
   consider to be desirable, including the goals we should pursue. Norms are standards of conduct,
   how we should and should not behave” (2)
   The image of the Nigerian does not appear to be good in the international circle, despite
   the efforts of the government (especially the Buhari administration) to bleach it. The Nigerian
   needs a visa to stop at any part of the world, even on transit. He is ready to assume the nationality
   of any country under the sun, rushes out to have a child anywhere in the world in order to confer
   citizenship on the child. All these are bad images that are being addressed by language and
   Dr. Ohia, Ben-Fred, Department of Ogba Language, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers
   State, Nigeria
   24 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   literature.
   Ruminating on the exigency of the Nigerian society in literary circle, Okeke-Ezigbo
   states that:
   Although Nigerian citizens wear expensive lace and shoes, their profile
   approximates what Ducan Williams caustically characterized as “trousered
   apes’.… The modern Nigerian has no proper knowledge of self or society. He
   lacks a focus and a destination. He is like the foolish man in the fable trying to
   run a race in iron shoes and not understanding why he cannot move. The
   average modern Nigerian is a noisy, crude fellow without moral, scruples or
   conscience (31).
   Similarly, Chinua Achebe, in apparent description of those who selfishly celebrate
   what they regard as the greatness of Nigeria, states:
   Nigeria is not a great country. It is one of the most disorderly nations of the
   world. It is one of the most corrupt, insensitive, inefficient places under the
   sun. It is one of the most expensive countries and one of those that give the least
   value for money. It is dirty, callous, noisy, ostentatious, dishonest and vulgar.
   In short, it is among the most unpleasant places on earth.
   This is not to say that Nigerians are without any effort geared towards the redemption of
   the country, and that efforts have not been made in the area of national integration and cohesion.
   These efforts do not appear strong enough to make an impact in national integration. Attempts
   have been made by previous governments in Nigeria to fight indiscipline, like General
   Muhammadu Buhari’s War Against Indiscipline (WAI) 1984, the consavir attempt to evolve a
   civil society, the supposed fight against corruption by the present administration, and the efforts
   made in achieving Federal character, but none is as resounding as the efforts made by language
   and literature just as in national sport. As a nation we have goals, development plans, annual
   budgets and experts in Nigerian Language and Literature have made more conscious efforts
   towards natural integration and cohesion and are making waves more than other scattered
   efforts which do not appear concrete enough to generate ultimate unity. In the words of Ohia,
   Somiari & Nwokocha (2013), “In the area of language /literature, writings on both subjects
   change over time to reflect the need of each generation in Nigeria… It is true that literature exists
   in all cultures, writing it, people share ideas and feelings which impact positively on the nation
   (200).
   As a nation we have goals, development plans, annual budgets and experts in Nigerian
   Language and Literature have made more conscious efforts towards natural integration and
   cohesion and are making waves more than other scattered efforts which do not appear concrete
   enough to generate ultimate unity. In the words of Ohia, Somiari & Nwokocha (2013), “In the
   area of language /literature, writings on both subjects change over time to reflect the need of
   each generation in Nigeria… It is true that literature exists in all cultures, writing it, people share
   ideas and feelings which impact positively on the nation (200).
   Language, National Integration and Cohesion in Nigeria
   The interlocking nature of language and literature towards national integration and
   cohesion cannot be over stressed, language is of course crucial to the understanding of literature
   and literacy. Right from the time of philology to the time of modern-day descriptive linguistics,
   the study of language as a universal or as a specific form of communication has dwelt on its
   organization, particularly as a communicative tool in society.
   In Nigeria, there is a relationship between language and society because language is
   25 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   socially realized as it is difficult to conceptualize culture, social behaviour and thought without
   language. Ohia & Anyaeneh (2010) state: “The English Language in Nigeria is a literate
   language or a language Nigerians rely on to promote or enhance literacy. The language of
   communication in literature has helped to mitigate the effects of multilingualism in Nigeria.
   This is a major stride of language and literature to educational advancement in Nigeria (P.1).
   This, viewed from another perspective has helped in national integration and cohesion as many
   ethnic nationalities in Nigeria are coerced to use the language of unity (English) which
   invariably is the language of Nigerian Literature.
   The invention of devices for representing language is inextricably related to issues of
   literacy; that is, to issues of who can use script and what it can be used for. Competence with
   written language, both in reading and writing, is known as literacy. When a large number of
   individuals in a society are competent in using written language to serve specialized functions,
   the whole society may be referred to as a literate society. As a literate society, there is integration
   and cohesion in the nation in all facets of human endeavour because of the common
   understandings in the individual mindsets for national development. According to Awonusi
   (2005) speaking about the history of the English Language after the use of Latin, “It took the
   standardization of the 7th century through printing before English could be established as a
   literate language or put in another way, a language that society can rely on to promote or
   enhance literacy” (P.2). This viewpoint allows us to argue that in the development of human
   capital, language and literature must necessarily play prominent roles, thus showing the
   interlocking nature of language and literature to create natural integration, cohesion and
   development. In the domain of literacy, language and literature are not found wanting.
   However, an important conclusion could be drawn from the myriad of functions of language
   and literature in the sociolinguistics of literacy.
   Furthermore, the use of indigenous and exoglossic languages constitutes part of public
   policy and the educational delivery system in Nigeria. These sociolinguistic issues could be
   exemplified by an examination of the thrust of language planning in Nigeria. During the
   colonial era in Nigeria, at an initial stage of its introduction, a purely assimilationist culture
   emerged. English becomes the language of Education in Nigeria, relegating the status of
   Nigeria Languages which would have created a state of anomie and disunity. The presence of
   the English language therefore created national integration and cohesion. The Education
   conference of 1882 made English the language of instruction in schools. Nationalist
   movements, however, regarded English as the language of the entrenched colonial culture and
   called for upgrading of the status of Nigerian languages.
   The 1947 Richard’s constitution made English an official language in Nigeria while
   Hausa was recommended as an additional legislative language in Northern Nigeria. The
   Nigerian 1954 constitution recognized two demolects: national and regional. Its Article 114
   (P.1) recommended the use of English as the national official language of the South and Hausa
   as the regional language of the North with the proviso that when conflicts in interpretation
   arose, documentation done in English should be regarded as valid. With the adoption of English
   and Hausa languages as national official language, regional language and legislative language,
   it becomes obvious that language is a vehicle of national integration and cohesion in Nigeria. It
   is also clear from the National Policy on Education (NPE) and post-independent constitutions
   that language planning is aimed at producing Nigerian trilingual: a speaker of English (L2) his
   mother-tongue (L1) and an additional decamillionaire Nigeria Language. All this calls for
   national integration and cohesion.
   The dominant nature of English allows it to perform both instrumental and integrative
   roles in the Nigerian context. Besides, it is the language of access to global science and
   technology and also the dominant language of education delivery. Adegbija (2004) adds that
   “the unchallenged and unparallel role of English in Nigeria education is another pivotal factor
   26 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   that will continue to guarantee its future” (P.37).
   This clearly demonstrates that for as long as English is perceived as the language of
   socio-economic advancement in a developing nation such as Nigeria, its functional potential
   shall continue to be felt as a tool for national integration and cohesion.
   Literature, National Integration and Cohesion in Nigeria
   The question of what literature can do to contribute to society that is characterized by its
   integration does arise. One can make bold to say that such society needs literature for national
   integration and development. This is because literature constitutes the best and brightest
   expressions of all humanity. It helps us to solve problems of existence, the problems of being
   human.
   Indifference to literature is the bane of societies like Nigeria. Any society that abhors
   literature is incapable of humanistic thinking and cultural behaviour. The literary guru, William
   Shakespeare has painted a picture of a character that is devoid of literature in his play Julius
   Caesar, and was described as unreliable and dangerous, the indefatigable Caesar confides in his
   friend, Mark Anthony that Cassius loves no plays and hears no music. The conclusion is that
   since Cassius is incapable of appreciating art, he was unreliable and dangerous. Can one
   conclude that a majority of Nigerians are incapable of appreciating literature? According to
   New (1999), literature is defined by invoking both the honorific uses of the term. We can define
   it… either as writings that have a certain neutral property, or properties, literariness; or as
   writings that have a high degree of a certain type of value, ‘literary value'(P.4).
   Because literature involves a group of people who share the experiences of the
   fictional activities demonstrated in literary piece, literature becomes a veritable tool for national
   integration. Literature affects us profoundly. It moves, and frightens. Our emotions are usually
   ignited by literature with the result that the reality of the fictive materials registers in us and
   makes us feel the immediacy of the situation. It involves imagination on both the author and the
   reader and imagination is the art of thinking propositions without asserting them.
   A literary work is usually produced in a social setting with a background of shared
   concepts and conventions. The craft of writing requires the writer to have a destination and carry
   that destination through his literary work to inform, even change society. The writer has to
   channel his work towards audience in such a way that his work is seen to have utility to the
   reader. It can be directed to particular archetypal characters or the entire nation. Hence, the
   writer is many things at once: philosopher, a historical witness, a critic, a teacher, a custodian of
   the moral conscience of his society. The writer and his work become a vehicle of change.
   To be able to achieve thin feet, Nigerian literature should be a national literature in order
   to contribute to national integration and cohesion. It should transcend the present state of
   literature and transit from ethnic to national literature, the process of characterization should
   move from ethnic heroes to national heroes. Consequently, ethnic heroes like Okonkwo in
   Things Fall Apart, Ezeulu in Arrow of God, Chief Nanga in One Man, One Machete, Alade
   Moses in Chief The Honorable Minister and Obi Okonkwo in No Longer At Ease for instance,
   could transit from ethnic to national mode of heroism in order to foster cohesion and
   development in the country.
   The Process of Integration
   The term integration gives an idea of bringing parts into a whole, of removal of barriers
   that create segregation. It involves unification, combination, and cooperation. It is the method
   of combining separate parts into one. In mathematics, integration is the instance of obtaining the
   integral of a function. Without integration, there is bound to be disintegration which causes
   cultural confusion and disorder.
   27 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   There is a relationship conscious or unconscious, between the individual and the brother
   society. Our world is ordered by the beliefs, norms, and values of the society into which we are
   born. Every society has roles that govern it, and socialization, the process of learning to become a
   member of society, is a lifelong activity. society exerts pressure on all its members no matter their
   age, to continue to conform to the norms, values, and laws of that society. But unfortunately,
   every society has deviance who reject the values and break rules.
   In pursuit of national integration, literature and the language of literature must express
   the collective consciousness of the nation, the national ideology, the national spirit. Fictional
   characters must be made to assume national stature and not regional or local heroes and heroines
   portrayed in the early beginning of African and Nigerian literatures. The traditional mode of
   literary expression lends authenticity to integration and universality. The setting of traditional
   tales is far removed from the ordinary specific settings. The involve the characters in issues of
   universal relevance to the society, not to a particular group. The setting is usually seven forests
   and seven rivers a way from the ordinary locale of the living. In an animal story, for instance, the
   action takes place in the land or country of the animals, not a specified locale of snakes or lions.
   Even when a particular animal is chosen as a character, his attitude is placed along side the
   attitude of other animals in the animal kingdom.
   Similar to the role of literature towards national cohesion and integration, Nigerian
   English and other Nigerian languages have developed Nigeria. Nigerian English, for instance,
   has impacted Nigeria heavily through the education system. Its phonology, lexis, semantics,
   syntax, pragmatics, and acceptability have been variously analysed. The “Big Three” languages
   (Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo) have helped in development of the new Englishes and this
   development has created room for easy communication, thereby creating coherence and
   integration in the day to day administration of the country. The one century’s sojourn of English
   in Nigeria has left indelible marks prominent among which are code-switching, diglossia, and
   permanent borrowings of English words and expressions into Nigerian languages and viceversa.
   In Nigeria, the national language policy formulated the 1977 and revised in 1981 assigns
   to English the role of serving as language of instructions from the fourth year of a six-year
   primary course to the tertiary level. In addition, English is to be taught as a school subject from
   first year of primary education, through secondary education and as a General Study (G.S.)
   course in first year to third year of tertiary education.
   Literary Language, National Integration and Cohesion
   The issue of language in literature and national integration and cohesion has featured
   prominently because literature is, of necessity, of a linguistic medium. The use of language is
   what distinguishes literature from other works of art such as painting, sculpture, music, dance
   and architecture. The language question has been variously addressed in critical scholarship in
   literature that one feels reluctant to repeat or restate them here. The issue of the use of mother
   tongue (MT) in literary expression as has been noted, is out of the question because of the
   multiplicity of indigenous languages in Nigeria. The main emphasis has been on the use of an
   operative European language to express Nigerian thinking without hurting the culture of the
   people or the language used to express it. This in itself has engendered peace, national
   integration and cohesion in Nigeria. Balibar and Machery (1989) capture it thus: ”the work of
   literary production depends on the existence of a common language codifying linguistic, both
   for its national and its aims insomuch as literature contributed directly to the maintenance of a
   common language (62).
   The issue of a European language as a vehicle for literary expression does not
   portend disadvantages to the reader or the writer, but as a vehicle for national integration and
   cohesion; the operative language should be used in such a way that it conveys meaning without
   28 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   distortion. The uniqueness of the culture or the intelligibility of the language as a vehicle of
   international exchange should be of importance. Even the creation of historical personage in
   literature allows for national history and unity. According to Inegbe (2004), speaking about
   Ogunyemi’s Eniyan and The Night of Oro Cult… ”the two plays, Eniyan and The Night of Oro
   Cult therefore, bring us to the interesting conclusion that all over the cosmos, the essence of
   amorality, like tragedy, is for the betterment of man to himself, his society and his creator’
   (P.189). This emphasizes the national integration of literature (drama) through unity in the
   society via moral ethos.
   Literature through English language medium has been creating a decorous atmosphere
   in Nigeria from the colonial to the post-colonial eras. Nnolim (2006) puts it succinctly:
   ”Africans, having lost pride through slavery and colonialism, created a modern literature from
   the ashes of these past experiences. It became a literature with a strong sense of loss; loss of our
   dignity; loss of our culture and tradition, loss of our religion, loss of our land; loss of our very
   humanity. Is it any wonder that the titles of our most celebrated literary works highlighted these
   losses? Have we forgotten Achebe’s Thing Fall Apart; Ngugi wa Thiongo’s Weep Not Child;
   Alan Paton’s Cry The Beloved Country?. And protest literature over apartheid further irrigated
   Africa’s tears because of man’s inhumanity to a people dubbed the wretched of the earth” (P.1).
   This fight of losses further strengthened African writers and indeed Nigeria writers to a
   force of integration and cohesion, in order to fight their common enemies, the white
   (colonialists) and the black (neo-colonialists). Advancing the frontiers of literature toward
   national integration and cohesion, most African writers have re-patterned the English language
   or recast it in form and content to suit their purpose. In other words, some of them have taken to
   the use of the African native languages. Egbudu (2005) avers: ”this recasting of the language is
   evident in Gabriel Okara’s The voice, Achebe’s use of transliteration, Aluko’s interference.
   Tutuola’s disregard for semantic and syntactic rules of English and Ngugi’s use of the Gikuyu
   Language. Similarly are Fatunde’s use of Pidgin and Saro-Wiwa’s use of ‘rotten’ English. All
   these are in a bid to communicate their experiences (P.68). The choice of language and the use
   to which the language is put is central to people’s definition of themselves in relation to the
   world. As a result, new writers now want the pidgin standardized as to make the literature reach
   a wider audience, for integration, coherence through the message of the text.
   Conclusion
   This paper has perceived literature as a veritable weapon that would help us grapple
   with our problems and help to lead us to that ‘no man’s land’ called national integration. It is
   capable of extracting us from the shackles of dictatorship, corruption, and economic
   irresponsibility. There is no better way of articulating national integration than literature. In a
   nation like Nigeria, where every other category of integration has failed, this is the only
   alternative. The writer should be able to tell the truth as he sees it, and remember that the human
   mind has the power to grasp the truth with intuitive certainty when he engages in a war for
   national integration, he should not be afraid of the consequences.
   Literature has been used exclusively to bring order, morality, and candour in society. An
   example is the English Restoration Age which arguably is a replica of the Nigerian society.
   Because literature produces a positive, moral effect on the human mind, it spires humanity to
   virtuous action. A literary work has multiplicity of contrasting, varying and mutually exclusive
   strands of meaning which are reached after interpretation of the work. For literature to make an
   impact in Nigeria, the writer should be committed in his trade and strive at national integration
   and cohesion. He should tackle the plethora of errors that impede our march to nationalism,
   attack ethnic prejudices, and correct errors which work against our national psyche. Finally, he
   should transcend from ethnic or regional literature to integration by creating characters that
   assume national significance.
   29 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   References
   Achebe, C. (1983). The trouble with Nigeria. Enugu: Forth dimension
   Adegbija, E . (2004). The domestication of English in Nigeria In S. Awonusi, and E. A. Babalola
   (eds). The domestication of English in Nigeria. Lagos: University of Lagos Press.
   Awonusi V.O (2004). Globalization and hegemonic English in Nigeria: Identity conflict and
   linguistic pluralism. In oni et al (eds). Nigeria and Globalization. Ibadan: Stirling
   –Horden/CBAAC 85-102.
   Awonusi, V.O. (2005), Language and literacy in a developing nation In Currents in african
   literature and the english language (CALEL): Journal of the annual international
   conference on African literature and the English language (ICALEL) 3, 2, 1-23.
   Balibar, E. and P. Machery (1989). Literature as an ideological form In Oxford literary theory.
   London: Arnold.
   The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 (Amended).
   Egbudu, A.T. (2005). The use of Language in the African Novel: Ken Saro –Wiwa’s
   experimentation in sozaboy and prisoners of Jebs In NDUNODE: Calabar journal of the
   humanities 6, 2, 67-81.
   Enigbe, S. (2004) Tragic consciousness and moral ethos In yoruba drama: Wale Ogunyemi’s
   Eniyan and The night of oro cult critiqued In Uyo journal of humanities 9, 188-202.
   Federal Republic of Nigeria (1977, revised 1981 and 1998) National Policy on Education. Lagos:
   NERDC.
   New, Christopher (1999), Philosophy of literature London: Rontledge.
   Nnolim, C. E. (2006), African literature in the 21st century: Challenges for writers and critics In E
   .N. Emenyonu (ed), New directions in african literature 25, 1-9.
   Nwabueze. E. (2005) Literature and national integration in current in African literature and the
   english language (CALEL): Journal of the annual international conference on African
   literature and the english language (ICALEL) 3, 1 – 14.
   (CALEL): Journal of the annual international conference on African literature and the english
   language (ICALEL) 3, 1 – 14.
   Ohia, B. F., and T. Anyaeneh (2010) Language in Nigerian Literature In Journal of research in
   contemporary education (JORCED) 2, 1, 1-5.
   Ohia, B. F., M. O. Somiari and F. Nwokocha: (2013) Language/literature as a tool for achieving
   the millennium development goals in Nigeria. In Nigerian journal of education, science
   and technology 2, 1, 199-204.
   Okeke- Ezigbo, E. (1982) The role of the Nigeria writer in a Carthaginian Society in Okike: an
   African journal of new writing 21, 28-37.
   30 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   ENVIRONMENTAL ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAMMES FOR ADULT
   FARMERS AND FISHER-FOLKS FOR OCCUPATIONAL ENHANCEMENT
   IN OGBA/EGBEMA/NDONI LOCAL GOVENRMENT OF RIVERS STATE
   by
   DR. I.I. OHIA
   Abstract
   Education is an important tool for social change, national integration and
   development. The extent to which these goals are achieved in any society or community
   depends largely on the quality of education provided for the citizenry, including the adult
   farmers and fisherfolks. One of the goals of National Policy on Education in Nigeria is that
   educational activities shall be centered on the learner for maximum self-development and selffulfillment
   and that effort shall be made to relate education to overall community needs.
   Education is always seen as the ability to read and write. However, education at this point has
   gone beyond reading and writing. Environmental education is no doubt a relevant instrument
   for solving environmental problems. Illiteracy is likened to darkness, ignorance and dreadful
   disease; it stunts growth and impedes progress. The adult farmers and fisherfolks in
   Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni LGA of Rivers State are majorly stark-illiterates, semi-illiterates or
   school-dropouts who form part of the illiterate members of the public and are those poorest
   who live in the rural communities and exploit the environment and its resources for life
   sustenance. As a result of this, the environment has been abused by these individuals or by
   external factors; because they lack the capability, skills, understanding to create and utilize the
   environment sustainably and wisely. This also has affected their farming and fishing
   occupations very drastically. In line with this, environmental adult education programmes
   have been broadly outlined in this study to enable adult farmers and fisherfolks in
   Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni LGA of Rivers State acquire needed environmental skills, knowledge,
   understanding and capabilities that would move them to take action and overcome
   environmental challenges at a given time and improve on their livelihood occupations for more
   and enrich their productivity.
   Keywords: environment, environmental adult education, ecological, fisherfolks, predestines.
   Introduction
   Environment is a broad and comprehensive term denoting all that surrounds human, air,
   water, solid and light. It is a condition or circumstance that affects living beings. Environment
   could be said to consist of all external factors and forces with which one interacts from time of
   conception to time of death on earth. It also includes the physical, chemical, biological,
   psychological and socio-cultural dimensions and indeed everything that makes up the context
   in which the individual lives (Odure-Mensah, 1992). The environment has been traditionally
   regarded as a reservoir of unlimited resources to be exploited and managed for human
   purposes. This human-centered perception of the environment has been blamed for centuries of
   environmental destruction (Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 2021, Oduro-Mensah, 1992).
   This human-centered perception of the environment was blamed because it led to the
   development models which address growth at the cost of environmental conservation resulting
   in global degradation of resources such as soil, land, forest and water which are regarded as
   Dr. I.I. Ohia, Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, Federal College of Education (T), P.M.B.11,
   Omoku, Rivers State
   31 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   basic human requirements for human survival. The degradation of environmental resources
   results in the contemporary global environmental problems such as climate change, global
   warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, pollution, greenhouse effect, erosion, desertification,
   biodiversity loss, etc.
   The solutions to these problems were being sought individually by different countries
   and regions of the world, an attempt which yielded no significant solutions because
   environmental problems are global in nature and existing across national and international
   frontiers. The reason for not achieving significant solutions in the efforts to address the problems
   was because while the developed countries preoccupied themselves with the problems of
   pollution, global warming, greenhouse effect and depletion of ozone layer, the developing
   countries preoccupied themselves in finding solutions to more existential problems such as
   desertification, drought, soil erosion, deforestation, high population growth rate, toxic waste
   disposal (Phiri, 1991; Mbalisi, 2010).
   Definition of Terms
   Adult Education
   The meaning of any concept is very important within the context. This is true of adult
   education. Aristotle said that terms are defined to make their discussion and meaning more
   intelligible and elaborate. He suggested that for any discussion to be intelligible, it must start
   with definition of terms (Wikipedia, 2019). To focus our discussion properly, there is need, not
   only to define adult education, adult, environmental adult education and environmental adult
   education programmes but also to look at the general aspect of what it does, what it covers and its
   knowledge development implications.
   Adult education affords adults an opportunity to continue their education at any level
   and in various forms. This is in response to their individual needs and those of their societies.
   These needs of man or woman may be in agreement with achieving new knowledge and skills
   for handling life challenges.
   Adult education existed right from the history of man. The end of World War II saw the
   recognition of adult education by many nations as a vital and indispensable tool for individual
   and national development. The ex-servicemen of Africa, like their Nigerian counterparts, who
   came in contact with white solders, saw the importance of education in their lives and for
   improving their society. Hence, there was increased demand for more and definite types of
   education for meeting the needs of their day-to-day life challenges. The field of adult education
   is continually expanding because of obsolete knowledge and skills. Adult education is a vital
   fact of the gigantic national education enterprise and an important source of social, economic
   and political development of nations (Okeke, 2008).
   International and National Organizations and Associations have sponsored and
   published professional journals, bulletins, seminars and conference papers on adult education.
   For example, the international journal of Adult Education like that of the German Adult
   Education (DVV) creates forum for dialogue and exchange of ideas as well as information
   between adult educators in developing countries (Africa, Asia, Latin America) and those in
   industrialized countries of Europe, in discussion of new ideas, information and experiences in
   adult and non-formal education. Many people, irrespective of their previous levels of education
   are returning to education in order to improve their lives, income, ensure job security,
   employment and to participate meaningfully in their social, economic, political and cultural life
   activities and challenges in their societies (Nzeneri, 2010). As a matter of truth “many people
   have been inhibited by some socio-economic, political, cultural and natural factors from
   benefiting from the right to education” (the universal declaration of human rights to education).
   These factors have resulted in a greater number of a nation’s population not really
   benefiting from the formal education system. Many people who entered various levels of the
   32 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   formal education failed to realize their educational ambitions or dreams. It is true that the adults
   in the society are the most affected by those factors for many of them may have dropped out of
   the formal school system because of one problem or the other either as stark-illiterates or semiilliterates.
   These require education for adults to remedy their deficiencies in education. Eheazu
   (1998 in Wikipedia, 2020) indicates that:
   These adults who now constitute the illiterate, unskilled, semiskilled
   or semi-professional labour force require some specific
   functional training/vocational programmes to remedy not only
   their educational deficiencies but also meet the needs of their
   various occupations whether as farmers, fisherfolks, artisans or
   employees of corporate/private organizations.
   Adult education in this regard is required to conscientize, animate and re-orientate these
   adults to change their behaviour and/or attitudes which will condition them to embrace new and
   improved techniques, progressive ways and actions towards improving their standard of living –
   socially, economically, politically and culturally.
   In developing countries where so many people are illiterate, the tendency is to define
   adult education as an aspect of literacy (basic and post literacy) and life-long education desired
   for individual and national development. Looking at adult education from the perspective of
   developed and developing countries’ views, Nzeneri (2008:10) defines adult education as any
   education given to adults based on the social, economic, political and cultural needs to enable
   them adjust fully to changes and challenges in their lives and society.
   One question adult education should address by answering is whether it has been able to
   achieve above listed adults’ needs in this present era of modernization and globalization. It is
   very important to note that it is in adult education that greatest emphasis is placed on life-long
   education as, a process and agent of liberation, a tool for adjustment, for self and national
   development, for cultural awareness and integration, for conscientization or animation and for
   group dynamism.
   Liveright and Haygood (1968:8) in Wikipedia 2021 defined adult education as:
   A process whereby persons who no longer attend school on a
   regular and full-time basis (unless full-time programmes are
   specially designed for adults) undertake sequential and
   organized activities with the conscious intention of bringing
   about changes in information, knowledge, undertakings, or
   skills, appreciation and attitudes or for the purpose of
   identifying and solving personal or community problems.
   Nyerere (1979) defined adult education as things which are not only concerned with
   agriculture or health or literacy or medical skills but something more than these. He saw all these
   as separate branches of adult education that are related to the total life a man is living. There is a
   need to emphasize here that adult education involves activities in related fields such as
   agriculture, health education, vocational training, cooperative organizations, media houses,
   library, museum to say a few. Adult education involves life activities. This is to say that adult
   education embraced the entire life and have its definition by Nzeneri (2008) as an education for
   life.
   UNESCO 1976 definition on adult education is adopted as the most comprehensive and
   universally acceptable. It states that:
   The term “adult education denotes the entire body of organized
   educational processes, whatever the content, level and method,
   whether formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace
   initial education in schools, colleges and universities as well as
   in apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded as adult by the
   33 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their
   knowledge, improve their technical or professional
   qualifications and bring about changes in their attitudes or
   behaviour in the twofold perspective of full personal
   development and participation in balanced and independent,
   social, economic and cultural development.
   The Adult
   Probing into our discussion of adult education demands good knowledge of who an adult
   is. The question of “who an adult is”, is usually the basic question commonly asked in the adult
   education process. The term adult is often associated with maturity and responsibility. Hence,
   Nzeneri, (2008:11) defines an adult as one who is physically and psychologically mature and is
   socially, economically and politically responsible. Physical maturation implies being capable of
   becoming a parent, picking a life partner, raising a family and managing a home(s). Based on
   these responsibilities, Houle (1972) and Bown (1979) defined an adult as a person who has
   achieved full physical development and is expected to have the right to participate as a
   responsible home maker, worker and member of a society. Psychological maturation involves the
   ability to contribute sound and logical idea(s) in group or in community discussions. Social
   responsibility demands that, apart from the fact that an adult is a member of a family, village or
   community, social organization or clubs, he must be committed to them by making his own
   contributions, as at when due. Economic responsibility of an adult implies that he is capable of
   gaining employment, picking a job, earning a living and provide for himself and others as well as
   contributing to the community either manually or intellectually. Political and civic
   responsibilities involve ability to vote and to be voted for, being a good citizen by paying his taxes
   according to his means.
   Rogers (1989) writes:
   A wide range of concepts are involved when we use the term
   “adult”. The word can refer to a stage in the life cycle of the
   individual; he or she is first a child then a youth, then an adult. It
   can refer to status, an acceptance by society that the person
   concerned has completed his or her novitiate and is now
   incorporated fully into the community. It can refer to a social
   subset adult as distinct from children. Or it can include a set of
   ideals and values.
   Adulthood is here defined in terms of age which is usually not the same across border
   either for voting or occupation of political offices. In Nigeria, for example the voting age is 18.
   However, Tight (1996) argues that some aspects of adulthood may be exercised before reaching
   18years old, such as marriage, full-time employed and taxation. The implication of this disparity
   in ages of various lands is that while persons would in the political sense be adults in their own
   lands, they would cease to be adults in other lands. Malcon Tight considers adulthood “as a state of
   being which both accords status and rights to individuals and simultaneously confers duties or
   responsibilities upon them” while Paterson (1979) defines adulthood as “an ethical status resting
   on the presumption of various moral and personal qualities”. This view by Paterson typifies the
   relativity of the term adulthood as applied to different societies.
   However, some authorities classified adulthood into stages. For example, Erickson
   (1963) divided adulthood into three: early, middle and late maturity while Havighurst (1972)
   classified people’s developmental task into – infancy, early childhood, middle childhood,
   adolescence, early adulthood, middle age and late maturity. Nzeneri (2008:3) however, is of the
   view that an adult is an adult if his society considers him as such irrespective of his chronological
   age, which may be 15 years or less or 65 years or more. Since adulthood is associated with
   maturity and responsibilities, these characteristics required some degree of education – education
   34 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   for adults.
   Environmental Adult Education
   Environmental adult education is an environmental education programme with adults
   as its learners, audience or participants. Summer (2003) saw environmental adult education as
   a hybrid outgrowth of the environmental movement and adult education, combining an
   ecological orientation with a learning paradigm to provide a vigorous educational approach to
   environmental concern. Summer (2003) defined environmental adult education in a layman’s
   term as efforts in teaching environmental issues and how individuals and business can manage
   or change their lifestyles and ecosystems to live sustainably. Environmental adult education
   could be defined also as a process in which adult individuals gain awareness of their
   environment and acquire the knowledge, values, skills, experience and the determination that
   enables them to act individually and collectively to solve present and future environmental
   problems as well as meet their needs without compromising the possibility of future
   generations to meet their own needs with the same environmental resources. It enhances
   critical thinking, problem-solving and effective decision-making skills of adult individuals that
   enable them to weigh various sides of environmental issues in order to make informed
   decisions and take responsible actions. In line with the above assertion, adult education and
   environmental adult education are really important instruments that can be used to enhance the
   occupation of adult farmers and fisherfolks in our local communities of Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni
   Local Government Area of Rivers State. Therefore, we are going to examine one after the other
   environmental adult education programmes available that could enhance the occupation of
   farming and fishing by adult farmers and fisherfolks in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni Local
   Government Area of Rivers State to enhance their knowledge and skills for further
   improvement in line with recent global practices.
   Environmental Adult Education Programme
   Peters 1993 in Wikipedia 2020 stressed that adequate environmental education is
   lacking in Nigeria when compared with other developed nations. He further explained that it is
   imperative to raise the environmental consciousness of the Nigerian citizens in order to
   transform the vague awareness of the environment by the citizens into general public
   consciousness. This, according to him could be achieved through intensive campaigns of
   public enlightenment, adequate information exchange and environmental adult education
   programmes. Environmental adult education programmes whether formal, informal or nonformal,
   remains a necessary precondition for the achievement of global environmental quality.
6. Basic environmental literacy education programme
   Basic environmental literacy is one of the forms of literacy which is based on
   Akinpelu’s (2002) alphabets, words and simple statements as alphabetic literacy. Adult farmers
   and fisherfolk form part of the illiterate rural groups in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni local government
   area. When they are exposed to basic literacy education programme, it will help to equip the
   farmers and fisherfolk with basic skills of reading, writing and communication. With this
   primary knowledge of reading and writing, it will help them to notice information and on areas
   of occupational improvement as they would be able to read out simple information notice
   favourable or unfavourable with regard to enhance their farming and fishing occupations. This
   is because literacy programmes if designed under community education approach, can be used
   to develop in the illiterate rural people the skills of reading and writing simple words and
   statements that would empower the adult farmers and fisherfolks to read and write issues
   associated with their surrounding environment. With the skills of reading and writing
   developed in adult farmers and fisherfolks, they would also be able to read and acquire
   35 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   knowledge and understanding concerning the nature of their own forests, bushes, components
   of their forests, environment and take measures that are likely to forestall, protect, conserve and
   preserve their occupational environment from further destruction. And at the same time,
   empowered to resist actions and activities that are likely to impact negatively on their
   occupational enhancement as well as communicate freely.
7. Reserve conservation education programme
   Reserve conservation education programme is education for social and public
   responsibility that reflects programmes designed to develop understanding and knowledge of
   the public issues and problems facing any community and its citizens domestically in economic
   area (Power, 1970 online 2021). Reserve conservation education within the framework of
   community education is for the conservation and reservation of the environment and
   environment resources that has to raise the level of commitment and sense of responsibility of
   the rural dwellers including the farmers and fisherfolks active participation in actions geared
   towards environmental conservation and reservation.
   Programme such as reserve conservation education is designed for the understanding of
   the ecological and ecosystem problems that goes a long way in making an adult learner (farmers
   and fisherfolks) a better citizen of the community. This is because, such programme is designed
   to cater for the information needs of adults including adult farmers and fisherfolks in the
   management of the environment and forestalling destruction of wildlife and its habitat. This
   programme is designed to help adult citizens (adult farmers and fisherfolks) with skills to
   undertake their civic responsibilities and perform their economic role. Such civic responsibility
   is environmental protection. Reserve conservation education programme is used to make the
   rural dwellers, adult farmers and fisherfolks inclusive gain understanding and consciousness of
   the fact that their health is inextricably linked to environmental quality and so be motivated to
   take actions that would ensure the protection and maintenance of environmental quality.
   United Nations Conference (UNC, 1992 on line 2021) in line with the above
   programme, adult farmers are given the opportunity to learn the right quantity of fertilizer to
   apply to the crops and how it should be applied during cultivation to avoid or forestall residues
   of the fertilizer contaminating the soil, surface and underground water tantamount to the health
   of the populace. Further, this programme affords the farmers knowledge of reserving and
   conserving farm crops. For instance, yam seedlings etc for further planting. Furthermore, the
   adult fisherfolks under this programme should learn that they have no property rights over the
   seas, rivers and the swamps and mangrove areas but should understand their complex situation.
   They should be taught that the use of dynamite and garmalin in fishing is wrong, condemnable,
   unacceptable and criminal offence before the eyes of the law. The implication of this to human
   health is made applicable to them. More importantly, this programme helps them to understand
   that during fishing, they should avoid harvesting the fingerlings but should rather harvest the
   mature fishes and throwback the fingerlings into the water to generate for future use. This
   programme if well organized, would help the adult farmers and fisherfolks gain the opportunity
   to keep the resource base for future generations.
8. Vocational non-formal environmental adult education programme
   In vocational non-formal environmental adult education programme, the farmers and
   fisherfolks are taught how to manage their business of farming and fishing which are their
   primary occupations without compromising the use of environment. The reason is because it
   has been noted that rural dwellers are predominantly artisans and agriculturists who live closer
   to the environment and forests and depend mainly on the environment’s and forests’ resources
   for daily survival. The vocational non-formal environmental adult education programme is to
   36 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   develop in adult farmers and fisherfolks social, economic and occupational competence (Venn,
   1980), a process to equip them with skills and knowledge to recognize the competence and
   enable them to enhance their occupational competency and ensure proper management of
   farming and fishing. Vocational non-formal environmental adult education programme helps
   an individual to be conversant with the theory and practice of vocation with a view to enabling
   them apply technical expertise, knowledge and skills to improve their need (Hassan and
   Oyebamiji, 2012). This programme also shall improve the knowledge of the farmers and
   fisherfolks who are part of artisan workers that use chemical such as dynamite, garmalin in
   fishing. This is wrong and should be discouraged as well as helping them understand that the
   use of excessive fertilizer in crop cultivation should discontinue and as well draw their
   knowledge to the proper use of fertilizer application for crop cultivation.
   The need for vocational non-formal environmental adult education programme should
   not be limited to adult farmers and fisherfolks above rather suggests that environmental
   reservation, conservation education and community education approach should incorporate
   programmes that have to educate the rural people, farmers, fishermen, women who depend on
   the environment for their daily survival on sustainable ways of exploring, exploiting,
   transforming and utilizing environmental resources without destroying the ecosystem and
   biodiversity. Such a programme is based towards environmental conservation and preservation
   to encourage the adults (rural dwellers) including farmers and fisherfolks to adopt
   environmental friendly approaches to the practice of their occupation to ensure enhancement.
   Also, in this programme, attention should be given to illiterate adults who are part of the society
   whose socio-economic activities could mar or improve the environment in which they live or
   work.
9. Attitudinal change programme
   Long before now farmers and fisherfolks in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni Local Government
   Area are used to sticking to old ways and methods of farming and fishing inherited from their
   ancestors or parents. For instance, cutting down bushes and burning, them to make farms, etc.
   And using harmful chemicals such as dynamite and garmalin to fish in the ponds, creeks, lakes,
   water ways and rivers, etc. These practices became very harmful to the predestine and the entire
   occupational environment. To help the farmers and fisherfolks improve on the new ways and
   methods of farming and fishing, this attitudinal change programme is designed to predispose
   adult farmers and fisherfolks to current ways and methods of farming and fishing, and to help
   minimize environmental problems and improve occupational environment that would enhance
   fishing and farming in the local government area. This programme could take the form of nonformal
   education organized with the use of well-trained field workers comprising the
   organizers, supervisors, and facilitators. It has specific content, purpose, delivery system and
   control (Barikor, 1984) online 2021).
   This programme is aimed at raising the consciousness and awareness of the farmers and
   fisherfolks, spread understanding and provide the necessary skills together with the human and
   materials resources for the social and economic base of the community. It encourages the
   utilization of learning resources within the community for the purpose of mobilizing the
   community’s resources for its own good. This programme identifies the community’s needs,
   assesses available community resources, and uses these resources to develop appropriate
   programmes and activities to meet identified problem. It could be recalled that long before now
   the farmers and fisherfolks sees it as customary to harvest and utilize crop seedlings, for
   instance, yam seedlings, fish fingerlings, snail fingerlings and small species of animals for
   economic purposes by selling them to make money which has led to the extinction of most of
   these species, wrong application of fertilizer and this has greatly affected the wildlife habitat
   37 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   (Eheazu, 2005).
   However, with the “attitudinal change” programme in mind, which is practically
   community-based approach to environmental adult education would help to awaken
   consciousness in the rural farmers and fisherfolks on how to avoid this parochial way and method
   of farming and fishing and develop in them a sense of responsibility that would assist them and
   enable them to take actions to forestall such negative activities and encourage occupational
   enhancement.
10. Practical agricultural extension programme run by ADP staff
    Practical agricultural extension programme run by ADP staff is a programme designed to
    reach adult farmers and fisherfolks in their extension settlement to teach them how to go about
    managing the farming and fishing occupations. Such programme organized by the extension
    officers (ADP staff) and adult educational facilitators is to help and broadened the knowledge of
    adult farmers and fisherfolks on the skills that would help sustain their occupations and escape
    any attendant hazards likely to affect their occupations. Extension programme is aimed at
    enabling the rural people (adult farmers and fisherfolks inclusive) improve on their subsistence
    and commercial levels of farming and fishing. (Kumar, 1979 online 2021) explain that this could
    be achieved by means of aided self-help education. This programme is concerned with not just
    giving the adult farmers and fisherfolks theoretical knowledge but giving them the techniques of
    raising better crops and fishes. It covers agricultural extension (farming and fishing). By this
    programme, the extension officer works with the rural people (adult farmers and fisherfolks
    inclusive) to help them find solutions to their occupational needs. The extension officers also
    engage in helping the adult farmers and fisherfolks understand, accept and put new skills and
    knowledge into practice to enhance their occupations.
    Conclusion
    Environmental adult education programmes are quite unique. These programmes if well
    and properly introduced to the adult farmers and fisherfolks in the local government area, would
    help to increase the skills, knowledge and understanding of our farmers and fihserfolks in line
    with the current and global practices of farming and fishing. Majority of the farmers and
    fisherfolks in the local government area of Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni Local Government Area of
    Rivers State are predominantly stark-illiterates or school dropouts and constitute more in number
    that have direct contact with the environment on daily basis as a result of their livelihood
    occupations. They have been very dogmatic to the old ways and methods of farming and fishing.
    To break the barrier, there is need to occupy them with these environmental adult education
    programmes for greater productivity both in farming and fishing. Also, efforts should be made to
    reach them through community leaders and associations.
    Recommendations
    The following recommendations are made to enhance the occupations of adult farmers
    and fisherfolks in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni LGA.
11. To help farmers and fisherfolks gain the proper skills, knowledge and understanding of
    these programmes, only the adult education facilitators and ADP staffs should be used as
    resource persons.
12. To ensure proper and greater productivity of farming and fishing in the LGA; local
    government council as a matter of fact, should give financial support to the programme
    and organize frequently the programme on regular bases.
13. These programmes would help the adult farmers and fisherfolks to improve on the very
    modern technique that could enhance their skills, knowledge, understanding in farming
    and fishing.
    38 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
14. These programmes could be organized in form of workshops or seminars on regular
    bases to enhance the occupation of adult farmers and fisherfolks.
15. Most of the adult farmers and fisherfolks no doubt are stark-illiterates, semi-illiterate
    or school drop-out. They should be engaged more on the practical aspect of the
    programmes rather than theoretical aspect.
    References
    Akinpelu, J.A (2002). Adult literacy and role on poverty reduction http://www/google.com
    accessed on 10th April, 2021.
    Barikor, C.N. (1984). Contemporary issues in community development education. Adult
    education in Nigeria 9, 92-100 http://www.google.com accessed on 15th April, 2021.
    Eheazu, B.A. (1998:15). The right to learn: relevance of adult education. (Inaugural lecture
    series 20) Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
    http://www/google.com accessed on 18th March, 2021.
    Erickson, I.E (1963). Adult education http://www/google.com retrieved on March 5th, 2021.
    Encyclopedia Britannica online (2021). Environmentalism. Accessed on March 20th 2021.
    Houle, C. (1972). The design of education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
    Hassan, M.A; and Oyebamiji, M.A. (2012). Introduction to adult education. Ibadan,
    Nigeria: Gabester Educational Publisher.
    Havighurst, R.J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McKay Co.
    Liveright, A.A; and Haygood, N. (1968:8).(Eds). The Exeter papers-report of the
    international congress on the comparative study of adult education. Bookline –
    Massachusetts: Center for study of Liberal Education for Adults.
    Kumar, A. (1979). Education for Rural Development L. Bown and S.H.O. Tomori (Eds), a
    handbook of adult education for West Africa. London: Hutchinson & Co.
    Publishers, Ltd.
    Nzeneri, I.S. (2010). An introduction to educational research methods and statistics.
    Onitsha: Goodway Press Ltd.
    Nzeneri, I.S. (2008:11). Handbook on adult education: principles and practices (New Ed.)
    Uyo: Abigab Associates.
    Nyerere, I.K. (1979). Adult educational development. Oduro-Mensah, D. (1992). Adult
    Education and Development. Ontario: Mayfield Publishing Company (DVV).
    Okeke, B.S. (2008). Foreword, in Nzeneri I.S. (ed) Handbook on Adult Education: principles
    and practices, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State: Abigab Associates Ltd.
    Phiri, S. (1991). UNCED: Development of window dressing? Adult Education and
    Development, 3;75-78.
    Peterson, R.E. (1979). Lifelong learning in America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
    Peters, S.W. (1993). Nigerian Environment and Management. Calabar: University of Calabar
    press.
    Power, N. (1970). Community Education http://www/google.com accessed on 8th April, 2021.
    Rogers, A. (1986). Teaching adults. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
    Sumner, J. (2003). Environmental adult education and community sustainability. New
    directions for adult and continuing education. Fall (99), 39-45.
    United Nations Conference (UNC, 1992) on Environment.
    UNESCO (1976). Recommendation on the development of adult education. Nairobi:
    UNESO.
    Tight, M. (1996). Key concepts in Adult Education and Training. London: Routledge.
    Venn, G. (1980). Vocational Technical education. In R.M. Smith, G.F. Aker & J.R. Kidd (Eds)
    Itembud of adult eduation (473-486). New York, USA; MacMillan Publishing Co.
    Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia 2021.
    39 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    OPERATOR MOVEMENT IN ENGLISH AND OGBAH
    by
    HENRY OBURU ONYEDIBIA
    Abstract
    The nuances of syntactic parameters as they concern Operators movement in the syntactic
    constructs of English and Ogbah are the exploits of this paper. The paper impliedly reflected a
    universal implication for languages in the polarities of the two divides. It attempted an
    examination of the movements of Operators within a clause structure and the resultant effects for
    the focus languages. In a multiple wh-words within a single clause structure, the paper discovered
    that for Ogbah, the Superiority Condition is permissible for English as an economy requirement
    for shortest move, but could be violated in Ogbah because of the demolition of Islands by the
    introduction of some relevant clitics in the syntax. The same consequence is also obtained in the
    Compl-non-Compl Asymmetry.
    Keywords: Operator, Movement, Asymmetry, parameters, Specifier, Wh-word.
    Introduction
    Ogbah language is a language among the group of the New Benue-Congo languages. The
    grammatical concept of ‘operator’ is conceived in the parlance of traditional grammar as any
    variety of the auxiliary verbs in English language. Tomori (1977:155) noted thus: “Operator’
    (‘traditional auxiliary verb’)…can be listed as follows: need, dare, could am/are/is/was/were+to,
    ought+to. As in the case of the lexical verbs, these operators can be classified according to
    different systems within the same function”. This idea of the ‘operator’ as held and used above by
    Tomori differs from the one we are about to consider in this paper. In the parlance of grammatical
    movement, an operator is regarded as the specified language unit which carries the notion of
    negation or interrogative, and inclusive in a phrase that is the subject or complement of a verb.
    This accounts for why operator bearing expressions at the D-structure level (i.e. at pre-question
    construction) occur adjacently at the periphery of the finite verb.
    Why an Operator Moves
    One of the important qualifications of the architecture of human language is creativity.
    The ability to create and recreate language is a basic necessity for the enablement of linguistic
    consequentials. Without this creative and recreative blueprint, human language communication
    would be piece-mealed, uninteresting and likely not encode the conceptional intent of the speaker.
    On the other hand, the listener would be encumbered with the problems of intelligible decodement
    of the linguistic transmission. The most efficient model for stemming this challenge is Movement.
    Until the contribution of Chomsky (1957) in the sphere of the syntax of human language, it was
    not obvious as the role of Movement in language creation and sustainability. Jackendoff posits
    that the motivative factor which inspired Chomky’s Syntactic Structure was the human
    uninpedable ability to create expressions of human communication. He empathically noted that:
    “In order for speakers of a language to create and understand sentences they have never heard
    before, there must be a way to combine some finite number of memorized units-the words or
    morphemes of the language-into phrases and sentences” (1997:3). According to the Minimalist
    model, the mechanism of language models α, β by External Merge, followed by Internal Merge
    Henry Oburu Onyedibia, School of Languages, Department of English Education, Federal
    College of Education (Technical) Omoku, Rivers State
    40 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    repositioning β, which is part of α. Hinzen (2006:215)noted that, “This form of ‘internal merge’
    would be nothing other than Movement”. He further averred that as a basic fact, if movement is
    not part of the language architecture, “uninterpretable features would appear at the interface and
    derivation would crash” (Hinzen, 2006:213). Without operator movement, question sentences
    and other related language structures may be impossible to achieve.
    Literature Review
    Expressions containing, for example, interrogative or negative operators are – for obvious
    reasons – called operator expressions. This presupposes that for an expression to be tagged
    ‘operator expression’ it must have one or two of the operator words, and should either at the Dstructure
    or S-structure level serve as a complement of the finite verb. The following are some of
    the operator words in English and Ogbah: 1. English: What, Who, No, which etc
16. Ogbah: Khnini, Onye, Ownowo, Ole
    In order to realise the parameters involved in the movement of operators in grammatical
    structures per Ogbah and English we will consider some of the operators above in constructing
    some sentences.
17. What is your name?
    Ewhna ki bu kini?
    Name your is what?
    “What is your name”?
    Let us illustrate the sentence: “Your name is what?”; using the tree diagrams below:
    English 1a.
    1b.
    42 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Ogbah
    2a.
    2b.
    2c.
    42 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    2b.
    2c.
    Operator expressions are ‘echo questions’ which a listener asks as a way of emphasizing
    what he heard from the speaker. To set the question as it should be in terms of interrogative or
    negative words in the expression, it means that the operator would have to be moved to
    somewhere at the left of C. But before we attempt this explanation, it will be appropriate to
    resolve the question of whether operator expressions are really supposed to be questions. Carnie
    (2007:342-5) asserted that:
    43 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    There are two properties of echo questions: (1) They
    don’t involve movement, but (ii) they do involve a
    special intonation, where the insitu wh-phrase is
    stressed…echo questions don’t involve movement.…
    While yes/no questions and wh-questions have some
    kind of syntactic licensing, echo questions seem to be
    licensed by intonation and stress. In this regard they
    are similar to intonational questions that don’t have
    subject/aux inversion.
    While this opinion by Carnie may present some truth, the impossibility of echo
    expression being overtly realised as questions by operator movement cannot be disregarded. At
    this point, it will be necessary to determine those language units which are mainly identified
    with interrogative and negative structures. Some of such words are the wh-pronouns: which,
    what, who and no. The idea of ‘insituness’ seems to be one of the factors behind Carnie’s
    rejection of operator expression undergoing any movement similar to the Yes/No inversion
    question. The concept of insituness denotes constancy of an operator or any other language unit
    in a grammatical structure. In other words, an affected unit is expected not to be moved from its
    position, but allowed to remain ‘in place’. This, probably, is to avoid ungrammaticality which
    moving an operator may cause. Again, this opinion is adduced from the following expression
    by Carnie (2007:342-3) since echo questions don’t involve movement, they aren’t going to be
    subject to MLC [Minimal Link condition – ‘move to the closest landing site].
    The MLC rule is similar to the “Economic Principle” which advocates economisation of
    grammatical structures and movements (Radford et al 1999: 330). That is, do not create too
    many structures; minimize the quantity of constituents to be moved and do not move to long
    distance. Reverting to Carnie’s claim about the insituness of echo expression’s wh-constituents
    etc, we want to argue that if an operator expression can survive the test of grammaticality by an
    appropriacy principle – That is the altruism to fill Specifier CP if “what; ‘which’, ‘no’ etc are
    regarded as interrogatives, negative and determiner constituents, then movement in an echo
    question should not be ruled out. More so, regarding that in a complement clause having whoperator,
    auxiliary inversion is barred especially where the complementiser is obscure or
    explicit; the wh-operator can be possibly moved to the left of the head C leaving the auxconstituent
    insitu to disable the realisation of inexplicit double question as indicated by the
    sentence and schema below.
18. “The President has spoken to which Senators?”
    “Which Senators has the President spoken to”?
    ‘Which Senators?’ and ‘Has the President spoken? (to…?)’ are two separate questions
    which the inversion of AUX to C may cause in a Wh or negative carrying complement
    expression. This can be avoided by moving the operator to a position left of C, while leaving the
    AUX insitu.
    Radford et al (1999:329) disagrees with the blanket insituness and un-interrogative tag
    which Carnie labeled Wh-operator expressions. To illustrate this he asserted that overt
    complementiser carrying expressions such as “’I didn’t know that he was cheating’ can’t be
    interpreted as questions….” It is therefore the embedment of an interrogative within a phrase
    structure that can designate it as a question. This is made possible by the movement of the
    interrogative constituent into Specifier-CP left of the matrix. It is important to note that earlier
    on, Chomsky (1981, 1986) had proposed a “C-adjunction analysis” which apportions whphrases
    to the bar headed by C. This view was later modified by Chomsky to bear that the wh-
    44 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    phrase moves up higher than the C-bar projection that is CP (in Ndimele 2000:52). In the view of
    Radford (1988:503-4) “…the C-adjunction analysis turns out to be fatally flawed.” He further
    noted that:
    Under this analysis [C-specifier analysis – Chomsky 1986],
    the universal aspect of WH-Movement is not (as was
    originally thought) that it positions wh-phrases to the
    immediate left of C-bar, into an empty C-specifier position
    (in languages which are specifier-initial).
    Thus, the obvious conclusion is that WH-movement cannot
    involve adjunction to C either in Veta or universally.
    Despite the settlement of the controversy of Wh-phrase analysis, the movement of an
    interrogative word or constituent to Specifier-CP is not without constraints (i.e. barriers). These
    barriers relate to the ‘Island’ phenomenon and other economic principles such as the “Minimal
    Link Condition” (Carnie 2007), “Superiority Condition” and “Complement-non-complement
    asymmetry” (Ndimele: 2000). These principles will no doubt assist with the leverage which is
    required for the unveiling of the syntactic parameters which exist between Ogbah and English.
    A clause or phrase can contain more than one Wh-word, and moving them
    simultaneously will pose quite some constraints. This is because one could crash since there
    may be no landing site for any other constituent that is base generated, or an auxiliary which
    movement to C or into C-bar is obligatory. This notion presupposes the idea of insituness of one
    of the Wh-words in a multiple Wh-phrase or clause. Where this is applicable, there is yet another
    restriction which obligates the movement of the nearest wh-word to the CP-Specifier left of Cbar.
    This works in conjunction with the fact of moving the one that is superior. This This idea is
    demonstrated in the schema below:
    4.
    Sentence No. (1) is ungrammatical, because the wh-word was moved. It is supposed not
    to be moved but remain insitu at the “foot of the movement chain.” The supposed immovability
    of ‘what’ in the structure is based on the syntactic fact that it is the rightmost modifier of the verb
    ‘say’. Ndimele (2000:58) noted that:
    …the choice of the wh-phrase to be extracted depends
    upon what is designated as the ‘true’ or “natural predicate’
    of the sentence… move-a cannot extract what-ever whphrase
    that functions as the natural predicate in a multiple
    wh-construction.
    Who will say what?

• will say who what
  will say – t1 what
• Will say who what
  will say who – t1 (what)
  45 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  ‘What’ in example No. 1(c) is the predicate object; the one that qualifies to remain insitu
  at its initial location. The extraction of ‘who’ and its flight to fill Specifier-CP is therefore
  justified since it is not a better predicate modifier to “say” than “what”. This syntactic operation
  obeys the Complement-non-Complement Asymmetry rule proposed by Lasnik and Uriagereka
  (1988) according to Huang 1982 (in Ndimele, 2000). Let us illustrate the schema above with
  some tree diagrams.
  English: “Who will say what?”
  5a.
  5b.
  6a.
  Adv
  I
  Will
  C
  D
  V
  CP
  TP
  C
  T
  VP
  DP
  D
  I
  who
  V
  say
  What?
  who
  V
  -ka
  mhe
  ku Adv
  D
  I(yu)
  C
  D
  CP
  T
  C
  TP
  VP
  V
  DP
  kini
  Pron.
  olengbe
  Ogbah: I(yu) mhe ku kini olengbe
  46 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  -ka
  mhe
  ku
  Adv
  D
  I(yu)
  C
  V
  CP
  TP
  C
  T
  VP
  D
  DP
  Pro.
  n
  olengbe
  I (yu) mhe ku kini olengbe
  kini
  6ba.
  7a.
  7b.
  The tree diagrams for English and Ogbah are similar; differing only in the generation
  of the ‘ka’ inflection which is moved into C-bar. But there is one striking parameter reflected
  in the diagrams. The wh-transformation in 6(b) and 7(b) for Ogbah, do not obey the
  “Complement-non-Complement Asymmetry” constraint, being that the transformations are
  grammatical, compared to 1(b) of the schema in which ‘who’ instead of “what” is insitu
  making it ungrammatical, while 1(c) is grammatical. This presupposes that in English, one
  Kini
  mhe
  -t
  ku
  C
  ka
  D
  I(yu)
  CP
  TP
  C
  T
  VP
  D
  V
  DP
  Adv
  Pron.
  olengbe
  -t
  47 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  of the wh-movements, as shown above, is blocked by the Comp-non-Comp Asymmetry to
  remain at base, while the other wh-word moves to the landing site outside C-bar. For
  Ogbah, the principle is violated, being that it is unable to hold insitu, any of the whconstituents
  as a matter of rule,
  Another parameter which the tree diagrams in No 6(b) and 7(b) presuppose is that the
  wh-movements, especially that of the relative clause, in Ogbah, is not also loyal to the
  ‘Superiority Condition” principle which Chomsky (1973: 246 & Marantz 1995:352; (in ,
  Ndimele:2000:56) respectively asserted that:
  …the category A is superior to the category B in the phrase
  marker if every major category dominating A dominates B as
  well but not conversely
  Superiority effects…suggest that the highest among a set of
  wh-phrases – the one closest to the Spec- of CP position – must
  move; wh-island effects suggest that when the closest Spec- of
  CP position is filled, movement of a wh-phrase is blocked.
  Summarily, this means that in a multiple wh-phrase, the wh-word to be moved,
  according to the Superiority Condition Principle, is the first wh-word, which in terms of
  grammatical distance is nearer the landing site of Specifier CP. In 6(b) and 7(b) ‘Olengbe’
  (‘when’) can move to head of the matrix (CP) as well as ‘kini’ (‘what’). The aftermaths of the
  movements will not be ungrammatical. This is not the case with English which, as we have
  observed, is sensitive to both Comp-non-Comp Asymmetry and Superiority Condition
  Principles
  Conclusion
  In the perspective of the Minimalist Program, program, some of the economic devices
  intended to deter the rigors and bloated procedures of grammatical derivation may not be
  universally tenable because of some parametric constraint that are the peculiar featurity of
  world languages. As has been empirically confirmed in this paper, the Superiority Condition
  and Compl-non-Compl asymmetry obey polar swing in the syntax of Ogbah language;
  contrary to English of which the violation of either economy principles would led to crash in the
  derivation as clearly demonstrated here using the Movement of Operators in the syntax of both
  languages.
  References
  Carnie, A. (2007). Syntax (a generative introduction (2nd edn). Blackwell Publishing.
  Radford, A. (1988). Transformational grammar: a first Course. Cambridge University Press.
  Radford, A. (1999). Linguistics: an introduction. Cambridge University Press.
  Ozo-Mekuri, N, (2000). “Move-a in igbo; multiple wh-construction as a violation of
  superiority condition & non-complement asymmetry”. In Afrika and Ubersee, Band
  83.
  Tomori, O. (1977). The morphology and syntax of present-day English: an introduction.
  Heinemann
  Jackendoff, R. (1997). The architecture of the language faculty – linguistic inquiry
  (monogragh twenty-eight). MIT Press.
  48 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  Hinzen, W. (2006). Mind design and minimal syntax. Oxford University Press.
  THE NATURE OF WAVE MOTION
  by
  UGECHI PEACE N. & OSU AZUNAMIBEBI DERIKUMA
  Abstract
  Wave motion is the transfer of energy and comprises wave, water wave, cord wave and so
  on. The paper highlights on wave motion and emphasizes on properties of wave: reflection of
  waves, refraction of wave’s diffraction of waves and interference. This paper will discuss the
  production and propagation of waves, the different types of waves, the mathematical
  relationship between the frequency, wavelength, period and velocity of waves, and light will also
  be treated as wave phenomena. And conclusion.
  Introduction
  Wave motion is a means of transferring energy. In such a motion in material medium,
  particles of the medium vibrate about their positions of equilibrium. The wave energy is carried
  forward but not the medium. When we throw a stone into a pool of water, circular waves form
  and move outward. Waves will also travel along a cord or rope that is stretched out straight on a
  table if we vibrate one end back to forth. Water waves and waves on a cord, are two common
  example of wave motion.
  Wave Motion
  A wave motion is the transmission of energy from one place to another through a material
  medium or a vacuum. Note, wave motion may occur in many forms such as:

1. Water waves
2. Sound waves
3. Radio waves
4. Light waves
   Waves are basically of only two types. They are;

• Transversal waves
• Longitudinal waves
• Transversal waves: The oscillation is at right angle to the direction of propagation of
  the wave. Example of this wave is, water waves and most electromagnetic waves.
  Ugechi Peace N. Physics Department, School of Science Education, Federal College of Education (Technical),
  Omoku, Rivers State & Osu Azunamibebi Derikuma, Physics Department, Federal College of Education
  (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State
  49 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  Propagation of wave along water fig. 1-1
  It is typical example of transversal waves. Note that transversal waves are waves that
  require material medium for their propagation.
  Longitudinal waves: the oscillation is along the direction of the propagation of the wave.
  Example of this is the sound wave.
  In course of the study of wave, there are basic terms we have to be familiar such as;

1. Wave length ( ): The wave length is the distance between any two successive
   corresponding points on the wave that is between two materials or two in all. It is the
   distance between two crest and trough.
2. Displacement: The displacement is the distance from the mean, the central, undisturbed
   position at any point on the wave (y)
3. Amplitude (A): Is the maximum displacement.
4. Frequency (f): The frequency is the number of vibration per second made by the
   wave.
5. Period (T): Is the time taken for one complete oscillation.
   T=
6. Phase: Is a term related to the displacement at O time. If we consider here the motion of
   a sine wave, since this type is the most fundamental. It can be shown that any other wave
   may be built up from a sense traveling in a positive x direction by the equation.
   y=a sin (wt-kx)
   While for the one traveling in the opposite direction
   y=a sin (wt-kx)
   Where; k is a constant
   w=2 f
   Note that one the sign gives the direction of the motion. We can state each equation into
   two terms;
   a. A term showing the variation of displacement with time at a particular place for
   example:
   x=o
   y=a sin (wt)
   I.e. the variation of displacement with time at a particular place x=o
   A term showing the variation of displacement with distance at a particular time.
   t=o
   y=a sin (kx)
   Cres
   t
   Undisturbed
   Wavelength
   Leve
   l
   a
   O
   a
   Compression Expansion
   Longitudinal wave Fig. 1 – 2
   Transversal wave Fig. 1 – 2
   Trough
   1
   ??
   f
   50 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   I.e. the variation of displacement with distance at a particular time =o
   An alternative form of the equation can proved as follows, T=
   F and w =2
   We have; T=
   Also when
   t=o, y=o at x=o
   and so on.
   K=
   Y=a sin2 ( )
   Properties of Waves
   Reflection of waves: All waves undergo reflection. The angle which the direction of motion of
   the plane wave front mares with the normal to the metal surface is known as angle of incidence
   (i).
   The angle between the direction of motion of the reflected plane wave front and the
   angle of reflection (r). Experiment show that in such reflections the angle of incident is equal to
   the angle of reflection. This is the law of reflection. The plane metal surface is known as a plane
   reflector. If circular waves are produced in the ripple tank and made to fall on the plane metal
   surface held vertically in water, the waves are also reflected and spread out as spherical or
   circular wave as though they originate from a point I behind the plane metal surface.
   Sound and light waves also undergo reflection at plane surface; the sound heard after
   reflection of sound waves is called on Echo. Echo phenomenon is used in underwater
   exploration for oil and gas and in the mapping of the depths of the bed.
   Reflection of heat Radiation: Heat radiation is much like light and radio wave. All three
   are example of electromagnetic radiation, like other waves, heat radiation can be demonstrated
   using a simple set-up. The heat wave originates from the hot metal ball and is directing along a
   cardboard tube to a polished metal plate which acts as the reflector. The reflected wave is
   detected by the thermopile, an instrument whose action depends on the electromotive force
   which appears between the junctions of two different metals at different temperature. The tubes
   are adjusted until the thermopile registers the maximum deflection. At this point it is found that
   the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incident.
   Refraction of Waves: Refraction is the change in the speed and direction of the waves as they
   cross the boundary between two media of different densities. The angle of incidence (i) is the
   angle the direction of the incident wave front makes with the normal at the boundary surface.
   The angle of refraction (T) is the angle the direction of the refracted ray makes with the normal
   to the plane boundary. The refractive index, n of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 is related 1 2
   1
   ??
   f
   f
   51 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   to the speeds of the wave in the two Media as follows;
   For light waves
   n = Velocity of light in medium 1 1 2
   Velocity of light in medium 2
   For water waves passing deep to shallow water refractive index is given by;
   n = Velocity in deep water 1 2
   Velocity in shallow water
   Refractive index is also given by
   n = sin i 1 2
   Sin T
   Diffraction of Waves
   When travelling waves pass through narrow openings or moves round obstacles, they
   tend to spread out in different directions. This phenomenon is known as diffraction. It occurs
   when the wavelength of the wave is longer than the width of the opening or size of the obstacle.
   Diffraction is the ability of waves to bend around obstacles in that path. Light and sound waves
   show the diffraction phenomenon. Light waves are diffracted through very narrow openings of
   about 1 cm but sound waves are diffracted 5000t hrough wider openings of about 50 cm. These
   are the order of that wavelength. The reason why we do not notice the diffraction of light in our
   daily experience is that the wavelength of light is very small and so the effects is unobservable
   except when the light passes through very narrow openings.
   Interference
   Is the effect produced when two waves of the same frequency, amplitude and
   wavelength travelling in the same direction in a medium are superposed – as they
   simultaneously pass through a given point. When the superposition of the two identical waves
   results in increased disturbance (i.e. they reinforce each other) it is known as constructive
   interference. Constructive interference occurs when the path difference between two identical
   waves at a point, is
   When the resultant effect of the combination of the two identical waves result in that
   annihilation or complete cancellation of the effect of each other (i.e. zero or minimum
   disturbance), it is called destructive interference. This occurs when the path difference between
   the two identical waves at a point is;
   Two waves sources producing waves that have the same frequency wavelength and
   amplitude and which are always in phase with each other or have a constant phase difference are
   said to be coherent sources. Such waves are coherent waves. Light and sound waves show the
   interference effect.
   Reflection: When light is incident on a smooth or polished surface, it is reflected (it changes its
   direction in the same medium) but for rough or irregular surfaces it will be scattered in different
   directions.
   Plane Mirrors: Plane mirrors are considered as being smooth and polished surface, when a ray
   of light is incident on a plane mirror, the ray is reflected at an angle. The perpendicular line
   drawn at the point of incident is called the normal. The angle between the normal and the
   52 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   O
   N
   B
   N
   P
   M
   A
   The angle between the surface of the mirror and i0, or r0 or r is called the glancing angle.
   Note that PAB is equal to 2 r (is the angle of deviation) the angle of deviation is twice the
   glancing angle. If a ray is directed toward the normal to plane mirror it is reflected along the
   normal (N).
   Laws Of Reflection
   Reflection of light is governed by two laws;
7. One of the laws states that, the angle of incident (i0) is equal to the angle of reflection (r 0)
8. The second law says, the incident rays, reflected ray and the normal at the point of
   incident all lye in the same plane.
   Diversion of Reflected Ray by Rotated Mirror
   If we consider a ray OA, incident on the plane mirror M1 at a glancing angle r, angle of
   deviation DAB = 2 r. When the mirror is rotated to the new position M through an angle β, the 2
   angle of deviation as DAC = 2 (r + β), since the position of O remains constant, BAC = 2 (r + β), –
   2 r = 2 β. Note that angle BAC is the angle through which the reflected ray is rotated; we
   concluded that if the direction of an incident ray is constant, the angle of rotation of the reflected
   ray is twice the angle of the rotation of the mirror.
   Optical lever in Mirror Galvanometer
   Some instruments use a beam of light as a pointer. An example of this is the mirror
   galvanometer also called the tangent galvanometer.
   It is used in measuring small currents.
   A small mirror x is attached rigidly to a system that rotates when an electric current flows 1
   through it. A light beam is directed normally to the mirror from a fixed lamp S and the light is
   reflected back to S.
   When an electric current is passed through the system, X , now moves to a new 1
   position X and the light moves over a vertical scale C to the position B. 2
   Angle OAB = 2β
   O
   C
   B
   M2
   M1 A
   D
   2
   β
   β
   53 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   If OB = y and the distance OA = d
   then tan 2β = y
   d
   since 2β is small,
   tan 2β = 2β in radians
   :- 2β = y
   d
   β = y
   2d
   β can be calculated.
   This enables the current passed to be calculated from the manufacturers specifications.
   This optical lever can also be used to measure small increases of length to expansion or
   contraction of a solid.
   Image Form by Plane Mirrors
   O is a point object placed in front of the plane mirror. An observer with his eye at E, sees a
   virtual image of O formed at I. The image distance MI = MO (the object distance). The image is
   of the same size as the object and erect. The left hand side of the image is the mirror, corresponds
   to the right hand side of the image this is termed as “Lateral Inversion”
   Inclined Mirror
   The number of image formed in two plane mirror inclined Ø0 = 3600 – 1
   Ø
   Formation of Real Images by a Plane Mirror
   If a convergent beam is incident on a plane mirror M, the reflected ray passes through a point
   P in front of mirror and a real image is formed.
   O
   N
   B
   A
   E
   C
   M K
   I
   54 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   I
   –
   Virtual Image
   O – Re a l Object
   I
   –
   Virtual Image
   P
   –
   Real Image
   When the rays are produced they meet at N to form a virtual object (an object formed by
   apparent intersection of rays). The real object and virtual image are distances are equal from the
   mirror
   Uses of Plane Mirror
9. Optical lever
10. Kaleidoscope
11. Sextant
12. Periscope
13. Seeing sound
14. Coiners
    Reflection at Curved Mirrors
    Curved mirrors are parts of spherical surfaces. There are two types:

• Convex Mirrors
• Concave Mirrors
  55 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  Essential Features of Spherical Mirrors

1. The mid-point (P) of the mirror is called the pole
2. C is the centre of curvature, the center of a large sphere of which the mirror forms part
3. KL is called the aperture
4. PC is the principle axis, measurement are taken on this line
5. F is the principle focus, a point where rays which are very close and parallel, to the
   principle axis converge and diverge.
6. The distance CP, is equal to the radios of curvature = R.
7. The distance PF is equal to the focal length of the mirror which is equal to F.
8. They can produce real images which are images formed in a screen or formed by actual
   interception of rays. They also form virtual images which cannot be formed on a screen
   Deviation of U, V, F and R relation for curved mirror.
9. Relation between R and F = we consider a ray OA, very close and parallel to the principle axis
   N and P incident on the curved mirror. If Ø is the angle of incident and NA is the normal,
   then;
   NB = BA (since DNBA is isosceles)
   BP = BA (since 2Ø is small)
   2Ø = AP……….. (1)
   BP
   Ø = AP for small Ø……..(2)
   NP
   K
   P
   C
   F
   F
   L
   O
   C
   N
   P
   2 Ø
   Ø
   B
   56 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   From equ. 1 and 2
   2Ø = 2AP = AP
   NP BP
   NP = 2BP……(3)
   NP r = and BP = F
   :- r = 2f
   Where F = focal length of the mirror and
   r = the radius of the curvature
10. Mirror Formula
    O is a point object placed on the principle axis OB
    Where B is the pole of the curved mirror. The ray OA incident on the mirror forms a point image
    I. NA is the normal at A and passes through the centre of curvature of the mirror at N. Angles
    and β and Y are small.

• Ø = Y (exterior angle DOAN)…….(1)
  β+ Ø = Y (exterior angle DODI)……(2)
  If we substitute or subtract (2) from (2) we have;
  r – β = Y
  r + r = 2 β……………….(3)
  r (radians) = AB =AB
  OB U
  Β (radians) = AB = AB
  NB r
  V(radians) = AB = AB
  IB v
  Substituting for r, β and v in (3) using the above expression, we have;
  AB + AB = 2AB
  U V v
  Dividing both sides by AB
  1 + 1 = 2……………(4)
  U v r
  Since 2f = r
  U
  B
  I
  Ø
  A
  Ø
  V
  N
  β
  o
  r
  r
  r
  57 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  1 + 1 = 2 = 1
  U v 2f f
  :- 1 + 1 = 1 (mirror formula)
  U v f
  Sign Convention
  When using optical formula, we apply a sign convention. For now, we shall adopt the
  real is positive convention for a real object, U is positive and a virtual object, U is negative. For a
  real image, V is positive and negative for a virtual image. F is positive for a concave mirror and
  negative for a convex mirror.
  The linear magnification (m) = height of image
  Height of object
  = Image distance (v)
  Object distance (u)
  Conclusion
  All waves are due to vibration. Water and sound waves are due to vibrations of layers of
  particles in a medium concerned. Light and radio waves which do not require material medium
  are due to electromagnetic vibrations.
  Therefore, this paper concludes that the nature of wave motion is in three words;
  disturbance, propagate, and medium.
  Reference
  Freando, E. (2017). Wave motion as inquiry. Hotshra University and Sunny College at Old
  Westburg Physics and Astronomy, Chemistry and Physics Adolescence Education.
  Kari, F. G. (1991). Wave motion in elastic solid (reprint) Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975
  Pp. 13- 14.
  Keith, G. (2003) Advanced physics second edition reprinted, published by the press syndicate
  of the university of Cambridge. The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge
  CB21RP, United Kingdom.
  Manacheril, G. T. (1999) Countdown to SSEE/JME Physics, Published by Evans Brothers
  (Nigeria Publishers) Limited. Ibadan.
  Michael, A. S. (2003). Wave education, seismic wave and rays in elastic media, E/service, Pp.
  131.
  New School Physics (2007) for senior secondary schools revised edition, published by Africa
  First Publishers Limited Book House Trust, Onitsha.
  Paul, R. P. (2009). Op. Cit. P. 242 ISBN 978-0-7637-5993.3
  ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF BIRTH CONTROL
  58 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  TECHNOLOGIES AMONG WOMEN IN OMOKU, RIVERS STATE
  by
  DIRISU, CHIMEZIE G.1,BRUNO. A.I1; IKENYIRI, NGOZI, P & DIENYE, RUTH3 Abstract Birth control technologies [BCT] otherwise referred to as family planning (FP) are strategies adopted to control growth of human population. In this study, the level of participation of civil servants in BCT and its impact on physical environment and human ecology was ascertained. Data for the study consisted of a 4-point structured questionnaires containing thirty-three items. This was used to elicit responses from the respondents, which comprised of ninety civil servants randomly selected from various ministries in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni local government area of Rivers State. Percentage distributions of responses were computed and mean calculated. Results indicate low level of BCT adoption. Surgery method had the lowest mean response (1.67) and child spacing, the highest (2.84), implying a large extent of BCT usage. Among perceived factors for the observed level of adopting BCT were poor/lack of knowledge on the subject, poverty, fear of side effect, sociocultural beliefs and religion (mean>2.5). BCTs have high levels of direct and indirect impacts on the environment, family and society. Keywords: Birth control te4cnologies, Family planning, Environment, Society, Introduction Many estimates exist concerning the population of Nigeria today, depending on the benchmark data used and the rate of growth. For example, Impact (1990) projected a population of 160 million for Nigeria in the year 2000 with a growth rate of 2.9 % – a rate, which the World Bank confirmed. The issue of population control has been on the limelight considering the effect of overpopulation on any country’s social, economic and environmental wellbeing (Aina and Salau, 1995). It is in realization of these linkages that the Federal government formulated the National Policy on Population [NPP] (NPC, 1988), and instituted as a strategy, to address the issue of population and family life Education at its post-primary school curriculum (Nwosu, 1999). As one of its objective, the NPP stands to achieve population control through the wilful participation of married women and men in birth control or otherwise known as family planning [FP] Birth control technologies [BCT] have given millions of people the ability to decide whether and when to have children, and its arrival on the scene in 1960 coincided with increasing concern about population growth. Though, it was thought to be a force of liberation for women, it was seen as a tool for stemming the tide of the world’s growing population. As the rate of natural increases, so the population explodes. With availability of food, and adequate health care, there is the tendency for women to continue to give birth, except there is some kind of control. FP allows couples to determine the number and spacing of their children. BCT means any method used to reduce birth and these include natural family planning/rhythm methods, barrier methods, hormonal methods, implantable device control methods, permanent method. Information on the principles, advantages/disadvantages of different BCTs are available from http://www.accessesexcellence.org/AE/AEPC/WWC/1992/RU- Dirisu, Chimezie G.1,Bruno. A.I1; Ikenyiri, Ngozi, P and Dienye, Ruth3 , Department of Biology
  Education,2Department of Elect / Elect Education,3Department of Educational Foundation, Federal College of
  Education (Technical) Omoku. Nigeria
  59 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  4 8 6 . h t m h t t p : / / w w w . e m e d i c i n e h e a l t h . c o m / ; a r t i c l e s / 3 5 4 2 5 – 7 . a s p ;
  www.womenshealth.gov/publications/o…
  Popular opinion is that zero population could end poverty and hunger through the
  stabilization of the population as well as conserve the earth’s finite resources. The question is
  how many people are actually planning to control the sizes of their immediate family? This
  study was therefore carried out to determine the level to which adult workers adopted BCT/FP,
  the extent to which BCT/FP impacts the socio-economic and environmental well-being of the
  populace in Omoku, an oil producing community in Rivers State, Nigeria.
  Research methodology
  The survey design was used in eliciting information for the research. The study
  population comprised civil servants drawn from Omoku, the Headquarters of
  Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni local government are in Rivers State. A total of ninety respondents were
  randomly selected as follows: Social welfare, 4; Population Commission, 10; Electoral
  Commission, 2; Health Centre, 10; Primary School Board, 24; Court, 5; Finance, 5; Local
  government, 10; Vehicle Licence, 2; Others, 18. This constituted the study sample. To obtain
  data for the study, a 4-point structured questionnaire titled, “Level of Adoption in Birth Control
  Technologies and Impacts Questionnaire” [LAIBCTAIQ] (see appendix 1) was developed and
  administered on the respondents. The questionnaire contained thirty-three (33) items.
  Questions were divided into three sections according to research questions. Sections I was
  rated as very high level (4 point), High level (3 points), very low level (2 point) and low level (1
  point) while sections II and III had strongly agree, agree, strongly disagree and disagree
  response options with 4,3,2 and 1 point respectively. Reliability of questionnaire was computed
  using test and re-test method with a reliability coefficient (r) of 0.75. Data was analysed by
  computing the frequency of responses and hence the percentage and mean responses. Data was
  analysed using Microsoft Excel data analysis Pak.
  Result
  Data consisted of responses obtained from ninety (90) respondents used for the study.
  Results are presented graphically according to research questions:
  Research question one: To what extent do Civil servants adopt and participate in BCT?
  Research items 1-7 were used to provide answer to the research question one. Percentage and
  mean responses on the extent of using birth control methods and participation of civil servants
  in FP are shown in figure 1a and b respectively. The lowest mean was surgery method (1.67)
  and adoption of child spacing (Item 7) has the highest mean (2.84).
  Research question one: To what extent do Civil servants adopt and participate in BCT?
  Figure 1a Percentage responses on level of family planning /birth control participation
  60 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  Fig 1b. Mean responses on the level of Birth control technologies adoption by
  government workers
  Research items 1-7 were used to provide answer to the research question one. Percentage and
  mean responses on the extent of using birth control methods and participation of civil servants
  in FP are shown in figure 1a and b respectively. The lowest mean was surgery method (1.67) and
  adoption of child spacing (Item 7) has the highest mean (2.84).
  Research questions two: To what extent do birth control technologies impact the environment
  and human ecology? Impacts of BCT on the environmental and socio-economic well –being of
  the respondents were investigated using questionnaire items 8-18. Mean responses on the
  impact of FP are shown in figure 2. Result indicate that FP/BCT has high level of positive
  61 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  impacts (mean >2.5) for enabling having the right number of children, sustenance in the family
  in times of meeting food, educational, housing needs as well as reduction of crime as well as
  conservation of other resources (items 8, 10-12, 17-18). Items 14-16 however have mean
  responses < 2.5, implying that family planning to a small extent affect homes in the areas of unfaithfulness to spouses leading to sexually-transmitted diseases and marital crisis. Discussion Results in figures 1 indicate low levels of respondents’ use of different BCTs as attested by 46% of respondents. Natural methods of abstinence and breast feeding as child spacing strategy are preferred (mean > 2.5), while use of protective sheath (e.g. condom), and pills etc.
  were on a low level (mean <2.5). The advantages and disadvantages of each method have been highlighted (Orie, 2005). Factors constraining the adoption of BCT included poor/lack of knowledge on the subject as attested by well over 70% of respondents (mean >2.5), poverty, fear
  of side effect, socio-cultural beliefs, religion etc. These findings were consistent with reports of
  Manguyu (1996) and Bowyer (1990) on economic and socio-cultural influences on women. The
  use of modern contraceptives is more common among wealthier women that poor women in
  nearly all countries, and the gap is particularly pronounced in the poorest countries in places such
  as Uganda and Nepal. This assertion as indicated in the 2005 World population Data sheet goes
  to support the finding that lack of resources or poverty as well as illiteracy actually account for
  low level of participation in birth control/family planning. Carol (1992) reaffirmed the theory of
  Malthus, that ‘adequate wages lead to better family planning because excess children then
  become an economic liability’. According to Carol (1992), the incentives to reduce population
  remains lacking in the developing world, and while food is also surplus, in developed countries,
  there is frequent starvation especially in Africa.
  Birth control technologies can have both direct and indirect impact on the environment
  and resources. As attested by 75.5% of respondents in item 18, birth control helps in the
  conservation of land, water, food and energy to a large extent (mean= 2.90). This finding is in
  agreement with those of Olaniran et al (1994) and Aina and Salau (1995) who elucidated the
  linkages between population, resource utilization and environment. According to them, massive
  deforestation for agricultural development, urban growth, industrial expansion and general
  pressures from an increasing population have reduced the extent, divert and stability of the
  Nigerian forest. In the National Policy of population and Development, NPC (1988), it was
  observed that
  62 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  ‘the present high rate of our population growth is already contributing substantially
  the degradation of the ecology of the country’.
  Furthermore, Lawal et al (1994) posit that large population derails to a great extent,
  efforts aimed at achieving meaningful and sustainable development. Finally, the linkages
  between poverty and environmental degradation with regard to women have been observed by
  Olaniran et al (1994) that destruction of many forests and plantations as a result of bush burning
  as well as over-exploitation of wood fuel is a display of poverty. Very large families have to
  grabble with the demand of wood energy for cooking their meals and of course the readily
  available source of wood fuels is the forest.
  From environmental toxicology point of view, there is a new concern of BC pills’
  potential to cause environmental pollution with deleterious effect on wildlife. Some studies
  indicate that hormonal contraceptives have the ability to introduce endocrine disruptors into the
  environment and this affects the development, fertility, and immunity of wildlife, and decrease
  their population and hence loss of biodiversity (Guerts et al, 2007; Kidd et al 2007; Alkayat,
  2010). Feminization of fishes due to synthetic oestrogen in contaminated waterways have
  been reported (Jobling et al, 1998; Stiffler, 2003; Kidd et al, 2007; Cajthami, et al, 2009;
  Christenson, 2011).
  Socio-economic impacts of FP /BCT may be direct or indirect. The side effects of BC
  method particularly the contraceptives pills have been reported. These include killing of
  marriages. Health impacts include migraine, loss of scalp hair, headache, dizziness, change of
  weight, mental depression, vaginitis etc. (Kuhar, 2003; Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical Inc,
  2008; Filpy et al, 2011).
  Implications of low level of participation in birth Control Technologies on human
  wellbeing
  High birth rate orchestrated by low participation in birth control technologies/ FP as a
  strategy of population control implies that annual birth rate will continue to rise, particularly
  with increase in governmental intervention in the primary health care. Because of these
  challenges, PRP (2005) projects that dramatic differences in age structures and fertility rates
  will mean that the populations of many less-developed countries will continue to grow more
  rapidly than those in Europe, unless otherwise checked.
  Teenage pregnancy accounts for the increasing human number. This means that more babies
  would be thrown away by their teenage mothers who may be abandoned by the child- father or
  man who got her pregnant. According to UN population Fund (2005), access to FP is a strategy
  to reduce woman’s lifetime probability of dying from pregnancy-related causes. Lack of
  concern about FP /BCT also implies that a married adult may have more children than they
  desired and this no doubt will contribute to financial stress in the family, which on its own, has
  its attendant social problems ranging from crime, prostitution, drug trafficking and the likes.
  Moreover, there is likely to be more children who will drop out of school as they have to fend for
  themselves or help their parents provide food in the family through street hawking, child labour
  and teenage marriages. On the other hand, continued use of contraceptive pills by the few
  literate women, implies more damage to our environment, which is rather a negation to
  sustainable development as oestrogen-rich urine in waste stream will be washed into
  waterways, where it affects fishes-the world’s protein sources. Protective sheaths are
  manufactured from some form of plastics, which when disposed of into land or water poses a
  danger to living organisms.
  Conclusion and Recommendations
  FP/BCT is a means of ensuring or regulating the number of children that are born into
  families. As birth rate increases due to food availability and comprehensive primary health care
  63 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  programmes at the grassroots, there is tendency for women to continue to give birth, except
  there is some kind of control. It allows couples to determine the number and spacing of their
  children. Result from the study survey indicated that civil servants, who are supposed to have
  attained some levels of education participated poorly on BC. The reasons for this trend range
  from poor/lack of knowledge in the subject, socio-cultural beliefs, poverty and fear of side
  effects of BC technologies. Evidence also shows that while family planning helps in conserving
  food, water and forest resources as well as meet basic needs in the families, to a large extent, it
  may be the cause of divorce and abandonment of homes as disagreeing spouses may engage in
  extra-marital affairs and or even be infected with sexually transmitted diseases, among which is
  the dreaded HIV/AIDS.
  Based on the research findings, the following are recommendations are given:

1. Family Life/Population Education should be made compulsory at all level of education
   in the country
2. Population awareness programmes should be organized at the grass root level to
   sensitize youths and married adults on the linkages between uncontrolled sexual
   activities, health and environment
3. Literate husband/wives should educate their partner on the need for child spacing and
   family planning techniques
4. Women and young girls should have free access to FP services and products under the
   surveillance of an expert
5. Churches and religious organizations should emphasize the need to control family size
   as a strategy to check social ills
6. FP units should be opened in health centres and hospitals and routinely posted to social
   welfare offices to enlighten couples with problems in that area
7. Considering the toxicological effects of contraceptive pills as outlined above, there will
   need for parents to conscientiously decide to adopt more environmentally-friendly
   method of FP/BC.
   References
   Aina, T.A; and Salau, A.T. (1995). (eds.) The challenge of sustainable development in Nigeria,
   A NEST publication, Ibadan: Printers Ltd
   Alkayat, Y. (2010). What is the pill doing to our bodies and planet? Ecologist, 40 (9), 10-11
   Cajthami, T; Kresinova, Z; Svobodova, K; Sigler, k and Rezanka, T. (2009). Microbial
   transformation of synthetic etrogen 17a-ethinylestadiol, Environmental pollution 157,
   3326-3335
   Carol, M. (1992). Radical Ecology; New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hill Inc. retrieved
   from http://www.dhushara.com/bok/renewa/voices2/recol.htm
   Christenson, A.C. (2011). Birth control’s Environmental Impact. Retrieved from
   femistforchoice.com/birth control-
   Ecology Digest News (2004). .Population, Family planning; March 15 2002- negative
   Population Growth USA: Growing population strains water resources, retrieved from
   http://www.overpopulation.org/archeivesJan-Apr2002
   Filpy, A.L; Neuparth, T; Thorpe, K.L; Owen, R; Galloway, T.S and Tyler, C.R. (2011). Health
   impacts of oestrogen in the environment, considering complex mixtures effects. Retrieved
   from www.enviromentalhealthnews.org/new…
   Geurts, M.G.J; de Boer, W; de Graaf, J.S and Van Ginkel, C.G. (2007). Environmental
   exposure assessment of ethinly estradiol (EE) from a combined hormonal vagina
   contraceptive ring after disposal; leaching from landfills. Science of total environment 377,
   366-370
   IMPACT (1990). African Population Images. Population Reference Bureau; Washington D.C. p
   64 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   26
   Jobling, S.M; Noln, C.R; Tyler, G.B and Summer, J.P (1998). Widespread sexual disruption in
   wild fish; Environmental Science and Technology 32: 498-2506
   Kidd, K..A; Blanchfield, K.H; Mills, V.P; Palace, R.E; Evans, J,.M; Lazorchak, et al, (2007).
   Collapse of a fish population after exposure to a synthetic oestrogen. Proceedings of the
   NAS, 194 (210) 8897-8901
   Kuhar, B.M. (2003). Infant homicides through contraceptives. 5th ed. Bardstown, KY: Eternal
   life
   Manguyu, F.W. (1996). Human values and sustainable development; The changing face of
   Africa. Int’l Lecture series on population issues; Lagos
   Nigerian Population Commission (1988). National Policy on Population and Development;
   Lagos:NPC
   Nkweke, C.N. (2001). Population and Family Life Education: A social antibody for combating
   HIV/AIDS scourge in Nigeria. A paper presented at the 5th Annual National Conference of
   the school of Science, FCE, Kano; Sept 2-6
   Nwosu, C. (1999). Introduction to Teacher Education; Lagos: D’dedan Eudcational Books
   Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical [OMP] Inc, ( 2008). OMP Inc. Patient package insert: OrthoTri-
   Cyclen to Tablet, (Raritan, New Jersey: OMP Inc
   Orie, N. E (2005). Social and environmental impacts of family planning/Birth control. An
   unpublished Research project submitted to the Institute of Education, University of
   Calabar, Calabar.
   Olaniran, N.S; Akpan, E.E; and Udofia, L.A. (1994). Environment and Health. A publication of
   NCF; Yaba: Macmillan publishers Ltd.
   Population Reference Bureau (PRB) (2005). 2005 World Population data sheet; retrieved from
   http://www.prb/Template.cfm?section=PRP&template=/ContentManagment/Cont……
   Stiffler, L. (2003). Birth control may be harming state’s salmon. Retrieved from
   www.seattlepi.com/news/article/Birth…
   United Nations Population Fund (2005). RHO Reproductive Health Outlook retrieved from
   http://www/unfpa.org/news/news-popissues
   Yisa, B. (1988). Introduction to Population Education; Population Education Monograph.
   Lagos: NERDC Press
   Appendix I: Questionnaire
   Rate your response on the Level of participation in family planning\Birth Control method:
   S/n. Item VHL HL VLL LL
   1 Surgery
   2 Abstinence
   3 Condom
   4 Use of intra-uterine device (IUD cap)/spermicide
   5 Use of contraceptive pills
   6 Use of monthly injection
   7 Child spacing/breast feeding
   65 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   II. Rate your responses on impacts of family planning\Birth Control on family, society and
   Environment
   S/n. Item SA A SD D
   8 birth control/family planning helped to have right number of
   children we wanted
   9 Our monthly salary is adequate to meet our family needs
   10 Our children’s education is adequately taken care of
   11 Our bed spaces(housing needs) are adequately met
   12 we have no need to send the children to sell in the street/market
   13 we cannot cope with paying the children school fees
   14 my spouse and I have separated/divorced due to inability to meet
   up
   15 family planning encouraged extra-marital relationship
   16 Birth control/family prevents sexually -transmitted diseases e.g.
   HIV/AIDS, gonorrhoea
   17 Lack of Birth control/family promotes unemployment, poverty,
   crime etc.
   18 Birth control helps in conservation and management of land, water,
   forests and food
   Section III. Factors/Problems for low level of participation in Birth control/Family planning
   S/n. Item SA A SD D
   19 Lack of belief in Birth control/Family planning
   20 No birth control methods are reliable
   21 It is a plan of the white man to steal our money
   22 Our forefathers did not limit the number of the children they
   wanted
   23 Lack of interest in family planning /Birth control
   24 Birth control/Family planning is a waste of time
   25 Birth control/Family planning has nothing to do with population
   control
   26 We do not participate in birth control/family planning because it
   is against our religion
   27 Our tradition forbids birth control
   28 There is not adequate resources for Birth control practices
   29 I am afraid of side effect of the pills /injection
   30 Our family will cheat us if we are fewer in number
   31 We believe that the gods will be against this practice
   32 Poor/lack of knowledge in that area is a hindrance to Birth
   control practices
   33 Involving in family planning brings quarrel and unfaithfulness in
   the home
   Acknowlegment:This paper is dedicated to Mrs. Orie Nkechi, E. (of blessed memory), a social
   welfare officer who carried out the preliminary studies on social workers and family planning.
   She passed on 11th of June 2011 and was interned 20th August 2011.
   66 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   ENVIRONMENTAL ADULT EDUCATION FOR A SUSTAINABLE WASTE DISPOSAL AND
   PROVISIONS FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (MSWM) FOR
   COMMUNITIES IN OMOKU TOWN OF OGBA /EGBEMA / NDONI LOCAL
   GOVERNMENT OF RIVERS STATE
   by
   DR. I.I. OHIA
   Abstract
   The term environmental adult education refers in this paper to all types of learning
   related to everyday life concerning the local environment. This knowledge from the environment
   equips the adult learners and others with skills, experiences, determination to face
   environmental challenges and overcome such a challenge. One of the challenges that people
   face from the environment emanates from their homes and this is about waste disposal and
   management. In many towns and cities including Omoku, fail to maintain environmental waste
   disposal as a result of this, everywhere become littered and continue to breed cockroaches,
   rodents etc which are not good for human health. In line with this, this paper has been used to
   discuss fully environmental project that could be put in place to help reduce waste disposal and
   ensure proper environmental management that would help to care for bio-waste, dry waste or
   dry-recyclables in Omoku from people’s household. This project is described as Municipal
   Solid Waste Management (MSWM) in communities of Omoku; this to establish in conjunction
   between Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni Local Government Area and Nigeria Agip Oil Company to
   reduce pollution in Omoku. This project as important, if carried out, will help to reduce
   unemployment in Omoku as well as reduce crime rate in communities of Omoku.
   Keywords: solid waste, bio-waste, toxic-waste, waste treatment and management, bio
   recycling, dry recyclables etc.
   Introduction
   Waste can be regarded as anything that is out of use. However, what is a waste to
   someone may serve as a reserve for another person. Some of the waste materials could be
   recycled to produce another thing. In this regard, waste can simply be described as materials
   which are thrown away or discarded as worthless which has no value. As observed by
   Tammemagi (1999), we are all wasteful lot on planet earth. For example, we use garbage and
   bury it; in turn the garbage gets rotten in the ground which pollutes the environment. The
   process of living, eating, working and playing are all involved in utilization of consumer
   products whose production and use generate waste. The implications of Tammemagi’s view is
   that for man to live in a habitable environment, he must find ways or means of getting rid of all
   those wastes they generate through adequate and save disposal process. According to Control
   (1992), the concept of waste is subject to the value of judgment on privacy of owner or potential
   consumer. To control, we have waste that are discarded materials which have no consumer value
   to the person abandoning it.
   Waste Disposal
   Waste disposal sometimes, takes the shape of industrial toxic waste, paper waste, solid
   Dr. I.I. Ohia, Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, Federal College of Education (T), P.M.B.11,
   Omoku, Rivers State
   67 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   and gaseous waste. However, scholars around the world have classified waste into different
   categories and types. For instance, Can (1999) classified waste into four types such as:
   a. Principal waste
   b. Industrial waste
   c. Hazardous waste
   d. Radioactive waste-x-rays all things
   Further to this, Rush Brook and Pugh (1999) classified waste as: (a) Domestic waste (b)
   Commercial waste (c) speed sweeping and (d) night mere soil.
   Onerkerochoraye (1995) classified waste as (a) sewage and (b) solid waste which
   generally can be grouped as solid, liquid, gas, emissions, toxic sewage or hazardous waste. In
   whatever form wastes are classified, what is common to them is that they are due for disposal.
   Waste should not be thrown away carelessly or dumped carelessly along the road or within
   surrounding. It should not be dumped close to people’s home or close to where people live.
   Rather, waste could be buried, burnt in incinerator or recycled just to mention a few depending
   on the nature of waste. Our water drainages or channels should be kept open at all times and not
   to be blocked by waste from the environment. An improper disposal of waste can lead to
   psychological, emotional and health implication on the people. The common effect of
   inadequate disposal of waste on people includes what is outlined below:
   i. Breeding of flies and cockroaches, rats and other rodents which transmit diseases and
   other health hazards on their inhabitants.
   ii. Pollution of surface and underground water
   iii. Loss of natural habitat especially when toxic chemicals that kill animals are dumped in
   the forest reserve.
   iv. Air pollution through waste burning and offensive odours emanating from the dumpsite.
   v. Fish incidence of infants and child mortality
   vi. Lost of manpower through sickness
   vii. Increase in heart related diseases as a result of gas flaring.
   viii. Low value of property as a result of nearness to dumpsite, etc. Therefore, the solution to
   waste disposal within our environment is environmental adult education that would help
   to ameliorate indiscriminate waste disposal in our environment. Before we probe into
   environmental adult education, we need to discuss briefly what an adult education is all
   about and its role on waste disposal.
   Adult Education
   The meaning of any concept is very important within the context. This is true of adult
   education. Terms are defined to make their discussion and meaning more intelligible and
   elaborate. Aristotle suggested that for any discussion to be intelligible, it must start with
   definition of terms (Wikipedia, 2020). To focus our discussion properly, there is need, not only
   to define adult education, environmental adult education, waste, waste disposal, solid waste
   management but also to look at the general aspect of what it does, what it covers and its
   knowledge development implications.
   Adult education affords adults an opportunity to continue their education at any level
   and in various forms be it informal, formal and non-formal. This is to respond to their individual
   needs and that of their societies. These needs of man or woman may be constant with achieving
   new knowledge and skills for handling life challenges. Adult education existed right from the
   origin of man. The end of World War II saw the recognition of Adult education by many nations
   as a vital and indispensable means for individual and national development. The ex-servicemen
   of Africa, like their Nigerian counterparts, who came in contact with the white soldiers, saw the
   importance of education in their lives and for improving their society. As a result of this, there
   68 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   was increased demand for more and definite types of education for meeting the needs of their
   day to day life challenges. The field of adult education is continually expanding because of
   obsolesce of knowledge and skills.
   No wonder, adult education is seen as an important facet of the gigantic national
   education enterprise and important source of social, economic and political development of
   nations (Okeke, 2008). International and National Organizations and Associations have
   sponsored and published professional journals, bulletins, seminars and conference papers on
   adult education. For example, the International Journal of Education like that of the German
   Adult Education (DVV) creates a forum for dialogue and exchange of ideas as well as
   information between adult education in developing countries (Africa, Asia, Latin America)
   and those in industrialized countries of Europe, in discussion of new ideas, information and
   experiences in adult and non-formal education. Many people, irrespective of their previous
   levels of education are returning to education in order to improve their lives, income, ensure
   job security and to participate meaningfully in their social, economic, political and cultural life
   activities and challenges in their societies (Nzeneri, 2010). No doubt in saying that many
   people have been inhibited by some socio-economic, political, cultural and natural factors
   from benefiting from the right to education (the universal declaration of Human Rights to
   Education).
   These factors have resulted in a greater number of a nation’s population not really
   benefiting from the formal education system. Many people who entered various levels of the
   formal education failed to realize their educational ambitions or dreams. It is true that the
   adults in their society are the most affected by these factors for many of them may have
   dropped out of the formal school system because of one problem or the other either as starkilliterates
   or semi-illiterates. These require education for adults to remedy their deficiencies in
   education. Eheazu (1998:15) indicates that:
   These adults who now constitute the illiterate, unskilled, semiskilled
   or semi-professional labour force require some specific
   functional training/vocational programmes to remedy not only
   their educational deficiencies but also meet the needs of their
   various occupations whether as farmers, artisans or employees of
   corporate/private organizations.
   Adult education in this regard is required to conscientize, animate and re-orientate
   these adults to change their behaviour and/or attitudes which would condition them to embrace
   new and approved techniques, progressive ways and actions towards improving their standard
   of living – socially, economically, politically and culturally.
   In developing countries where so many people are illiterate, the tendency is to define adult
   education as an aspect of literacy (basic and post literacy) and life-long education desired for
   individual and national development. Looking at adult education from the perspective of
   developed and developing countries views, Nzeneri (2008:10) defines adult education as any
   education given to adults based on their social, economic, political and cultural needs to enable
   them adjust fully to changes and challenges in their lives and society.
   Liveright and Haygood (1968:8) defined adult education as:
   A process whereby persons who no longer attend school on a
   regular and full-time bases (unless full-time programmes are
   specially designed for adults) undertake sequential and organized
   activities with the conscious intention of bringing about changes in
   information, knowledge, undertakings, or skills, appreciation and
   attitudes or for the purpose of identifying and solving personal or
   community problems.
   69 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Nyerere (1979) defined adult education as things which are not only concerned with
   agriculture or health or literacy or medical skill but something more than these. He saw all these
   as separate branches of adult education that are related to the total life a man is living. There is
   need to emphasize here that adult education involves activities in related fields such as
   agriculture, health education, vocational training, cooperative organizations, media houses,
   library, museum to say a few. Adult education involves life activities. That is to say that adult
   education embraced the entire life and hence its definition by Nzeneri (2008) as education for
   life.
   UNESCO 1976 reported in Nzeneri (2002) defined adult education as:
   The entire body of organized educational process, whatever the
   content, level and method, formal or otherwise, whether they
   prolong or replace initial education in the schools, colleges and
   universities as well as apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded as
   adults by the society to which they belong develop their abilities,
   enrich their knowledge, improve their technical or professional
   qualifications and bring about changes in their attitude or behaviour
   in the two-fold perspectives of full personal development and
   participation in balanced and independent social, economic and
   cultural development.
   Nyerere as reported by Nzeneri (2002:161) exposed the scope and clients of adult
   education as it affects all by saying that:
   Adult education (covers) many of the subjects learnt at school, for
   those who never had the opportunity. It applies to every one of us,
   without exception. We can all learn more, those who have never
   been to school, those who have just attended primary school and
   those who have attended secondary school or university. There is
   much more that everyone can learn about our work and what areas
   of knowledge that they were not taught when they were in school.
   This definition reveals the involvement of every one of us without exception in adult
   education and its relevance to all, for life improvement and adjustment. It equally reveals that
   we are all illiterates in the areas we have no knowledge about, which are relevant to the lives we
   are living; for instance, computer operation, technology use, internet use, environmental
   issues, ageing, retirement.
   The scope and complex nature of adult education was revealed by Liveright and
   Haygood (1978) quoted by Nzeneri (2000:162) who classified adult education into the
   following areas of opportunities:
   i. Remedial education to make well the deficiencies many people experience through
   non-acquisition of certain levels of formal schooling:
   ii. Vocational, technical and professional education, which are concerned with either
   preparation for work or the recurrent needs for updating and refreshing knowledge or
   skills;
   iii. Health, welfare and family life, including guidance education which are concerned
   with physical and mental health, family problems, parenthood, social security and
   consumer education;
   iv. Civic, political and community education which include instructions about national
   and international matters;
   v. Self-fulfillment education which embraces all aspects of education mainly for the
   enjoyment of the individual.
   70 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   “Adult education is learning about anything at all that helps us to understand the
   environment we live in, and the manner in which we can use and change this environment in
   order to improve ourselves”. Adult education covers all forms of education – formal, informal,
   and non-formal, Nzeneri (2002). Formal Adult Education is consciously planned and
   systematically organized or arranged programme of activities in which students are registered,
   and they follow specified syllabuses/courses either on full-time or part-time bases. It is
   hierarchically organized and the programmes are usually provided within walls of social agents
   of education like schools, colleges and universities. In these places students follow series of
   lessons on set subjects/courses and their achievements are measured from time-to-time by
   tests, examinations, seminar presentations and finally leads to award of certificates. Informal
   Adult Education is accidental or unintentional learning that is gained in day-to-day life
   experiences. This form of education is gained through private reading of books, magazines, and
   other printed materials; through listening to radio and television sets, music, conversations,
   media messages; watching ceremonies, rituals and other forms of recreation.
   Okedara (1981) as reported by Nzeneri (2005:41) outlined the following basic
   characteristics of informal education:
   i. absence of any form of planning;
   ii. absence of stated goals, purposes or objectives;
   iii. the learning programme is accidental in nature;
   iv. it involves life-long experiences;
   v. there is lack of awareness of what brings rich experience of what is to be learned on the
   part of the learner.
   Generally, informal adult education is acquired accidentally, incidentally and
   unintentionally. For instance a person who accidentally puts his finger into the fire experiences
   that fire burns. This education is achieved through trial and error like the newly married virgins
   who learned to do the “something” by playing with each other.
   Non-Formal Adult Education – is organized educational activities outside the formal
   school system. It is also called “out-of school education”. It involves such educational
   programmes as cooperatives, agricultural extension, community development education,
   environmental education etc. In these programmes, admission criteria, staff, course content,
   media, time units and facilities are adapted for particular students to enable them maximize
   their constraints.
   Truly, non-formal education does the following:
   It covers training and instruction outside formal school system, and
   ranged from individualized apprenticeship to national literacy. It
   may be vocational as provided in the craft training centres in
   Nigeria, deigned to provide employment opportunities for young
   school learners, and for other unemployed persons or the girls’
   vocational centres established in many African countries which
   train girls in vocational skills and prepares young women for
   marriage and business. (Eheazu 1998; Nzeneri, 2002).
   Non-formal adult education also involves social and political education like leadership
   and citizenship training centres which can be found in Plateau and Rivers State of Nigeria. In all
   these forms of education, the major concern of adult education, Nzeneri (2005) emphasized is
   how to help adults contribute to, participate in and promote individual, community/society and
   national development. Many adults irrespective of their previous levels of education are
   returning to adult education in order to improve their lives, income, ensure job security and to
   71 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   participate meaningfully in the socio-economic, political and cultural life activities and
   challenges in their society. We can agree based on what has been stated above that adult
   education is a means to resolve situational problems. And continue to expand because of
   obsolescence of knowledge and skills.
   Environmental Education
   Environmental education (EE) is a learning process that increases people’s knowledge
   and awareness about the environment and its associated challenges, develops the necessary
   skills and expertise to address the challenges and fosters attitudes, motivations and
   commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible actions (UNESCO, 1978 in the
   Full Wiki, 2010). So environmental education should be seen not only as a privilege but a right
   to every individuals to maintain the environment and not to litter the environment. This is to
   involve adults and non-adults on how to keep managing the environment where they live.
   Environmental education is derived from environmental adult education and adult education. It
   is an environmental education within the context of adult education. In other words, it is
   environmental education programme with adults as its learners, audience or participants.
   Sumner (2003) saw environmental adult education as a hybrid outgrowth of the environmental
   movement and adult education, combining an ecological orientation with a learning paradigm
   to provide a vigorous educational approach to environmental concern.
   Environmental Adult Education
   Sumner (2003) sees environmental adult education in a layman’s term as efforts in
   teaching environmental issues and how individuals and business can manage or change their
   lifestyles and ecosystems to live sustainably.Environmental adult education could be defined as
   a process in which adult individuals gain awareness of their environment and acquire the
   knowledge, values, skills, experience, and the determination that enables them to act
   individually and collectively to solve present and future environment problems as well as meet
   their needs without compromising the possibility of future generations to meet their own needs
   with the same environmental resources. It enhances critical thinking, problem-solving and
   effective decision-making skills of adult individuals and enables them to weigh various sides of
   environmental issues in order to make an informed decision and take responsible actions. It has
   been noted from our discussions that environmental education and environmental adult
   education help adult individuals acquire wisdom, knowledge, skills, values, experience and
   determination that enable them to act individually and collectively to solve present and future
   environment problems. To this effect, waste management and waste disposal are part of
   environmental problems. It has been noted that communities in Omoku are littered with waste
   disposal from different household without proper management and as such, many of the
   communities look dirty and filthy. Therefore, this paper focuses on how waste disposal and
   waste management within communities in Omoku should be handled by the restaurant
   operators or owners, shop owners, mechanic workshops, motor parks, markets, homes, schools
   and residential areas or quarters with regard to waste dumping and management.
   At our homes, business centres, public places, residential quarters and government
   areas, people need to be educated that they need to avoid improper waste disposal and
   management. Items such as papers, plastics, aluminum wastes and others could be recycled and
   converted to another use. People should avoid wasteful packaging. Cans, polythene bags can be
   recycled for another use bearing in mind the 3rs (regather, recycle and re-use). There should be
   laws against indiscriminate throwing of things along the road, compounds or within the
   surroundings. There should be awareness creation by adult educators for the restaurant owners,
   shop owners and others on how to manage waste within their environments.
   72 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   We all produce waste in almost everything we do. Therefore, waste is everybody’s
   business. Since “health is wealth”, waste management is arguably the most important
   municipal service any local government can provide for her residents. Waste management
   involves collection, treatment and disposal of wastes. Available records show that service
   levels and cost of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) vary distinctly across local
   governments. The same is true of the environmental impacts associated with the improper
   management of MSW in Omoku communities. It is also widely known that to achieve a wellfunctioning
   and sustainable MSWM system is capital intensive and so local government alone
   cannot fund such service. Therefore, with this paper in focus, NAOC operating in Omoku
   communities should assist in funding such project/services for Omoku communities to help
   reduce the financial burden on the local government and solve the impacts of environmental
   pollution and of course sustain employment on Omoku communities to enable the residents
   benefit.
   Nigeria, with a population of over 180million, is one of the largest producers of solid
   waste in Africa. Despite the measures put in place as well as a number of policies and
   regulations, solid waste management in the country is becoming a challenging task. Waste
   generation rate in Nigeria is estimated at 0.65-0.95 kg/capita/day, which gives an average of 42
   million tons of wastes generated annually. This is more than half of the 62 million tons of waste
   generated in Sub-Sahara Africa annually (World Bank, 2012; Ike et al; 2018).
   In Omoku, the composition of waste disposal has not been studied at moment.
   Therefore, in the absence of data about the composition of waste, only estimates can be used.
   However, with an estimated population of about 200,000 and an average daily waste generation
   rate of 0.80kg/capita/day, communities in Omoku are expected to generate about 160tons of
   waste daily, which is about 58,400 tons of waste annually. This volume of waste is huge and has
   a serious environmental health concern. Interestingly, it is within the 100-400 tons/day industry
   experts say is enough raw materials for processing. Since Omoku is one of the fastest growing
   municipalities in Rivers State and one of the hubs of oil and gas activities in Rivers State, this
   volume of waste is expected to rise significantly in the upcoming years. Therefore, in order to
   ameliorate the impacts of environmental pollution, dirty and filthy environment, and reduce
   unemployment on Omoku residents, there is need urgently for the establishment of a wellfunctioning
   and sustainable MSWM facility in communities of Omoku in
   Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni LGA.
   Existing Situation in Omoku Community
   At the moment, disposal in open and unsanitary landfills (i.e. burrow pits that are not
   designed to receive MSW) is the only option for MSW disposal in Omoku (figure 1).
   73 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   There is no formal sector involvement in recycling recovery, or treatment of MSW in
   Omoku. Only the informal sector, comprising some villagers, engage in open burning of the
   wastes and scavenging for plastic bottles, scrap metals, and other valuables to make a living
   (figure 2).
   These pictures of dumpsites portray the condition of waste disposal and waste
   management in communities at Omoku municipality. So if Municipal Solid Waste
   Management (MSWM) Company is provided for communities in Omoku municipality, such
   will help to care for bio (solid) and dry waste disposal and waste management in Omoku to:
   i. Enhance and maximize sanitary, aesthetic living conditions for all residents in Omoku;
   ii. Maintain positive communications with the city and the people customer;
   iii. Collect and transport solid waste from all residential, institutional and commercial
   customers within Omoku to an environmentally safe and permitted disposal site within
   Omoku;
   iv. Collect, process and transport bio-wastes and “dry” recyclables to appropriate
   materials recovery facility within the country;
   v. Provide billing for waste collection services; and to
   vi. Work out the schedule of collection of bio-wastes and “dry” recyclables.
   One interesting particular area that is increasingly becoming attractive in this field is
   bio-waste management. Bio-waste is becoming a major issue in the waste management sector
   with every person contributing some kilograms of waste per year. This has amounted to
   millions of tons of bio-waste annually, and about to make bio-waste the third largest component
   by weight in landfills (World Bank, 2012).
   To offer bio-waste recycling services in communities of Omoku municipality such as
   composting, will not only help to reduce the quantity of CO emissions and the volume of 2
   wastes that end up in landfills, but can help the very community accelerate in waste disposal
   and waste management plan as well as help the servicing company emerge as an industry leader
   and increase the revenue base immensely.
   Recycling such as scavenging for plastic bottles, scrap metals, and other valuables are
   widely known to reduce the volume of waste disposed in landfills which has been done at the
   informal level by scavengers at Omoku. However, there are every indication to suggest that the
   formal sector (e.g. government) is supporting efforts towards effective recycling activities
   within some major cities in Nigeria. For instance, there are compost and plastic recycling plants
   74 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   at Ibadan, a recycling plant for abattoir waste in Port Harcourt, and an organic waste recycling
   plant in Kaduna etc (Ike et al, 2018). However, by implication, the proposed Municipal Solid
   Waste Management (MSWM) project in Omoku if executed would be potential source of raw
   materials for these recycling plants in the country.
   On the basis of a population of 200,000 people, the total number of households in Omoku
   would be about 40,000; using the Nigerian benchmark of an average of 5 members per
   household (i.e., 2 parents+3kids). Waste management firm if established in Omoku, could
   charge households a standard flat-rate collection fee that could be worked out for households in
   Omoku considering into account the present economic realities in the country. Hence, the
   proposed MSWM services would be a generating stream of income overtime.
   Proposed Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) Services
   Considering the existing situation of waste disposal in Omoku, the planning of waste
   disposal should start from the very basic level (i.e. the household) by introducing the kerbside
   (stationary container) collection system. Depending on the number of emptying times and
   collection points to be established, the plan is to enable provision to each household in Omoku
   with at least two 1,125 litres roll-out containers (to be stationed at the kerbside, Figure 3a) and
   two 500 litres containers (to be stationed in the kitchen, figure 3b). this however, is to encourage
   residents to separate the bio-waste component from the Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), to help
   the recovery of “dry” recyclables and data collection for waste composition in Omoku. To make
   it easier for residents to be able to identify the appropriate container, the containers would be
   colour coded (figure 3b) with black colour for the bio-waste (black-bin waste) and green colour
   for the “dry” recyclables (green-bin waste).
   Polythene bags would be used as liners in the containers to be kept indoors to enable
   residents tie up their wastes neatly in the bag before dumping them into the bigger containers at
   the kerbside to avoid litering and stench from the waste. Self-compacting (figure 4a) or noncompacting
   (figure) 4b) waste collection trucks should be used to collect the wastes at the
   collection points on designated days and transported to the treatment, storage and disposal
   (TSD) facility.
   75 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   The “dry” recyclables would be processed and sold to the appropriate recycling plants in
   the country while the bio-waste would be composed and sold to farmers as agricultural input to
   boost food production. The components that cannot be recycled would be land filled in line with
   international and local environmental guidelines, practices and standards.
   Apart from the environmental, agricultural and economic benefits, the social benefit is
   straight forward to argue, because the proposed MSWM services would create jobs and by so,
   reduce the rate of crime and foster strong community bonds. In addition to the facility building,
   figures 5-8 show some of the key equipment that would be required for the management and
   provision of MSWM services in Omoku.
   76 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   77 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Waste Collection Frequency Proposal
   To make waste collection frequency very successful in communities of Omoku,
   Omoku would be divided into 4 zones for ease and efficient, effective collection of waste. The
   frequency of collection is summarized in table 4. The days for collection of bio-wastes could
   be Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays while “dry” recyclables would be collected on
   Wednesdays and Fridays; all to be in morning hours except because of unforeseen occurrence.
   Table 4: Waste Collection Frequency
   Implementation Plan (Technical Approach and Methodology)
   The technical approach and methodology to be adopted for the Municipal Solid Waste
   Management (MSWM) for Omoku could be summarized in the process flow diagram in
   figure 9.
   S/No Solid Waste Collection Point Frequency of Collection (per week
   Bio-Waste Dry Recyclables
8. Zone 1 Obieti 3 times 2 times
9. Zone 2 Usomini & Obohia 3 times 2 times
10. Zone 3 Obakata 3 times 2 times
11. Zone 4 Obosi 3 times 2 times
    78 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Conclusion
    The knowledge, skills, experiences, values and determination and awareness acquired
    from environmental education and environmental adult education would help to maintain a
    good and sustainable waste disposal and solid waste management by individuals in Omoku
    communities. This would enable individuals dispose their waste very well right from their
    household and overcome the challenges of indiscriminate waste disposal and foster attitudes,
    motivations and commitments to making informed decisions and take responsible actions to
    keep their environment clean. Also, the local government authority of Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni
    LGA should synergise with the NAOC in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni to establish the Municipal Solid
    Waste Management (MSWM) in Omoku to lessen the indiscriminate dumping of bio-waste and
    “dry” recyclables waste such as papers, plastic waste and metal scraps etc. This industry if
    established in Omoku, would go a long way to eradicate environmental pollution, dirty and
    filthy environment, reduce unemployment on Omoku residents and improve the lives of the
    people economically, environmentally, politically, socially and culturally.
    Recommendations
    The following recommendations are made for sustainable waste disposal provisions for
    Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) for communities in Omoku Town.
    i. The rate of unemployment in Omoku would reduce if the municipal solid waste
    management industry is established in Omoku as well as reduce the crime rate as more
    people are to be engaged for employment opportunities.
    ii. It would help the people acquire more knowledge and skills, experiences on how to
    dispose off waste without littering the environment;
    iii. Enhance and maximize sanitary, aesthetic living conditions for all residents in Omoku;
    iv. Collect and transport solid waste from all residential, institutional and commercial
    customers within Omoku to an environmentally safe and permitted disposal site within
    Omoku;
    v. Collect, process, and transport bio-wastes and “dry” recyclables to appropriate
    materials recovery facility within the country.
    vi. The MSWM if established in Omoku, would help to ameliorate the impacts of
    environmental pollution, dirty and filthy environment.
    References
    Control, S. (1992). Waste Management and Adult Education https://
    eni.m.wikipedia.org/…/Adult access on 28th of July, 2019.
    Can, I. (1999). Waste Management and Control https://eni.m.wikipedia.org/…/Waste access
    on 28th of July, 2019
    DVV (German Adult Education Association) (1991), One World Basic Document, Adult
    Education and Development, (37).
    Eheazu, B.A. (1998). Adult Education and improvement of fishing technology in Nigeria: a
    socio-cultural Analysis, Business and Education Research, vol(3), 1.
    Ike et al (2018). Waste generation annually. Wikipedia 2021, April 20th.
    Liveright, A.A and Haygood, N. (1968). (Eds.). The Exeter Papers –Report of the International
    Congress on the comparative study of adult education. Bookline-Massachusetts: centre
    for study of Liberal Education for Adults.
    Nzeneri, I.S. (2000). Adult and Non-Formal Education in the new dispensation: Issues and the
    way forward, Kosemani, I.M.(ed) Nigerian Education: Matters arising, vol.1, Port
    Harcourt: Abe Publishers pgs.59-74.
    Nzeneri, I.S. (2002). Meaning and scope of Adult and Non-Formal Education, Kosemani J.M.
    79 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    (ed) Introduction to Education. Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press
    pgs.155-174.
    Nzeneri, I.S. (2005). The concept and scope of Adult and Non-Formal Education. Adult and
    Non-Formal Education in Nigeria, NNCAE pgs.34-46.
    Nzeneri, I.S. (2008). Handbook on Adult Education Principles and Practices, Uyo-Nigeria:
    Abigab Associate Ltd.
    Nzeneri, I.S. (2010). An introduction to educational research methods and statistics. Onitsha:
    Goodway Press Ltd.
    Nyerere, I.K. (1979). Adult Education Development Food and Agriculture Organization
    (1983). Environmental issues in Niger Delta http://www.google.com accessed on the
    15th of May, 2021.
    Okedara, J.T. (1981). Terminologies and concepts in Adult Education, Bown, L. & Okedara J.T.
    (eds) An introduction to the study of adult education Ibadan: University Press Ltd.
    Pgs.9-31.
    Okeke, B.S. (2008). Foreword, in Nzeneri I.S. (ed). Handbook on Adult Education; Principles
    and Practices, Uyo-Nigeria: Abigab Associate Ltd.
    Onerkerechoraye, A.G. (1995). Human Geography for Africa. The Benin social science series
    for Africa. Ihupeju Press, Benin City.
    Sumner, J. (2003). Environmental adult education and community sustainability. ew
    directions for adult and continuing education. Fall (99), 39-45.
    UNESCO, (1978) in the Full Wiki, 2010.
    Tammemagi, I. (1999). Waste management and control in adult education
    https://cn.m.wikipedia.org/…/Waste access on 29th of July, 2019.
    World Bank, (2012). Waste generation annually, World Bank Statistics in Sub-Sahara Africa.
    Wikipedia 16th of May, 2021.
    Wikipedia, 2020.
    80 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    EFFECTS OF SELF-MANAGEMENT AND COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING
    TECHNIQUES ON SOCIAL ANXIETY BEHAVIOURS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL
    STUDENTS IN RIVERS STATE
    by
    ALLEN CHUKWUMELA ONYIJE, Ph.D & DINICHUKWU HOPE ONYIJE
    Introduction
    Every student, no matter his or her educational level, is expected to exhibit some levels
    of sociability. The students are expected to be in good social contact and relationship with their
    peers, teachers and significant others. The students are also expected to relate in confidence,
    become assertive and maintain social and emotional balance when speaking to themselves and
    others who may come their way.
    However, it has been observed that some students operate at a low level of their
    sociability as a result of poor self-esteem and self-concept. Such students rarely engage in
    social interaction with others and are therefore regarded as social anxiety students (Nnodum,
    2010). Social anxiety which is the tendency to feel award and anxious during public
    presentation, manifest at the age level of 11-13 which falls within the junior secondary school
    level. Students impacted with social anxiety behaviour express poor interpersonal
    relationship, low performance in negotiating relationship and this therefore affect their quality
    of life and other ways of relating and doing things together with other persons.
    Students naturally appreciate and enjoy associating and negotiating relationships
    among themselves. This behavioural disposition impact and influence positively on the
    quality of lives of people including junior boarding secondary school students. Shyness, fear
    and neuroticism are friendly with social anxiety which do not allow competence to develop
    among students. Such fear results from strange objects, persons, images, and darkness, among
    others. Fear too may also result from threat of failure, incompetence and perceived negative
    consequences. It can also arise from physiological conditions in which people experience
    extreme distress and discomfort at the developmental stage of life. The social anxiety students
    easily become sad, emotionally disturbed, socially aggrieved and agitated for prolonged
    periods of time and also could express poor cognitive achievements in school. The
    development could have some implications not only on their balanced emotion, well-being,
    behavioural health and learning but also on the society that may require the services of the
    students in later time.
    Social anxiety behaviour manifest during social nights of the students like drama ,
    dance, quiz, symposium, questions and answer sessions in the class and debate presentations
    (Tracy, 2017 ). Some of the physical symptoms of social anxiety according to Onyekuru and
    Okpara (2015) are over heighten arousal feelings of worry, self-deprived thoughts, tension and
    somatic feelings, shortness of breath, restlessness, fidgeting, shaking, vibrations, headache,
    sweating, stomach complications and upset. These are serious threats to healthy living and
    optimal learning performance as students. Social anxiety behaviour may come inform of
    interference, inhibitions and disequilibrium which allow the victims to stammer and struggle
    with words, when interacting with either strange or familiar people (Ikpeazu & Njoku, 2010).
    The victims of this problem will likely withdraw from class activities such as asking
    and answering of questions from the teacher and others and will not participate in many social
    Allen Chukwumela Onyije, Ph.D, Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counseling, School of
    Education, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State & Dinichukwu Hope Onyije, Local
    Education Authority, Omoku, Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni Local Government Area, Rivers State
    81 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    group activities and therefore forfeit academic opportunities. This can lead to poor results and
    half-baked secondary school leavers (Nwankwo (2017).
    Social anxiety is a general pervasive mood of depression, and inappropriate social
    behaviour and inability to learn or interact or be in good social contact and relationship with others
    that cannot be explained by intellectual sensory or health factor. Social anxiety behavioural
    problems tends to disturb students and the society also helps to worsen it by violently rejecting and
    criticising the victims who are already in a confused and frustrated state, instead of making efforts
    to alleviate the victims from the problems. (Ikpeazu & Njoku, 2010)
    Anxiety disorder is one of the most common mental health problems in both young and old
    people and causes more harm to victims and its cause has been traced to wrong early home
    experiences by the child especially children from single parents and broken homes whose parents
    may fail to show love but are constantly showing terrible fearful obnoxious experiences.
    Cognitive restructuring technique which derived its concept from the ideas of the
    cognitive learning theory helps individuals especially students to gain insight into their social
    problems and find probable solutions to them,
    Okoroji, (2014) applied self-management and cognitive restructuring techniques to
    manage aggressive behaviours among students in secondary schools in Benin-City municipal
    town and it was found rewarding. In the same vein, Ndubuisi, Ngozi and Henetu (2016) applied
    self-management and cognitive restructuring techniques in the treatment of bullying/aggressive
    tendencies among senior secondary school students in Owerri urban and they were found
    effective. Rey, Orts, and Extremera (2015) used cognitive restructuring technique on shy students
    in Malagassca province in Spain and the techniques were discovered to be effective and
    significant.
    Anxiety level in both men and women varies as men generally tend to have more
    heightened anxiety tendencies than women. The males are said to have heightened anxiety in their
    undertakings as they show it in decision–making, business and other similar areas of human
    endeavours than their female counterparts. The females are said to be moderate in anxiety towards
    duty and their personal effects. This implies that the female students are quite moderate and are not
    easily caught-up with anxiety in their ways of doing things than the males who have heightened
    anxiety behaviours (Egbezor, 2015).
    Statement of the problem
    A close observation of some junior secondary school students in Rivers State showed
    elements of worries, anxiousness, tension, fear and unassertiveness as they express themselves
    during public presentations in events like drama, debate, quiz, symposium among others. And this
    behaviour, social disorder undermined the developmental well-beings of the students as they
    expressed poor interpersonal relationship skills. This behaviour therefore affected their studies,
    academic achievements, performances and quality of life. The students also operated at a very low
    level of their social lives and found it difficult to engage in social interactions with others
    adequately, and so develop debilitating social anxiety behaviours.
    The researchers still observed feelings of inferiority, poor self-concept, self-esteem and
    social isolation from the same category of students which were capable of isolating them from
    their friends, school activities as well as degenerate into school drop-out because of the constant
    open disgrace of the less social anxiety students on the social anxiety students. And these may have
    far-reaching effects as some of the students may drop-out of school into cultism, robbery,
    kidnapping, destructiveness, sexual promiscuity, over ambition, drunkenness, rebellion, drug
    trafficking, and other social vices in the society and finally become menace to their parents,
    community, governments and the general public.
    The researchers saw need to change this ugly social behaviour in this cream of young
    82 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    growing youths always referred to as the future leaders of our nation so that they may have their
    rightful place and contribute meaningfully to the development of society hence the choice of this
    study, ‘effects of self-management and cognitive restructuring techniques on social anxiety
    behaviour of boarding junior secondary school students.’
    Scope of the study
    This study focused on establishing the effect of self-management and cognitive
    restructuring on the treatment of social anxiety behaviour of boarding junior secondary school
    students in schools that have boarding facilities in Rivers state. The investigations of the
    problems stated in this study was delimited to the use of two behaviour modification techniques,
    which included self-management and cognitive restructuring in the reduction of social anxiety
    disorder among the junior secondary school (JSS II) students. The study specifically focused on
    the effectiveness of self-management and cognitive restructuring techniques in the modification
    of social anxiety behaviour disorder. The study compared the effectiveness of the techniques in
    the treatment groups and the control group after the modification of the disorder. The study also
    compared the therapies to ascertain if there was significant effect in the treatments of social
    anxiety disorder of the students.
    Purpose of the study
    The main purpose of this study was to investigate the ‘effects of self-management and
    cognitive restructuring techniques on social anxiety behaviour of boarding junior secondary
    school students (JSS II) in Rivers state’. The study specifically sought to:
    (1) Ascertain the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement,
    cognitive restructuring treatment and control experimental conditions at
    post-test.
    (2) Establish the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement
    and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions at post-test.
    (3) Determine the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement
    and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions of males
    and females at post-test.
    (4) Determine the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement,
    cognitive restructuring treatment and control experimental conditions at
    follow-up test.
    (5) Establish the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement
    and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions at followup-
    test.
    (6) Ascertain the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement
    and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions of males
    and females at follow-up test.
    Research Questions
    The following research questions guided the study:
    (1) What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement,
    cognitive restructuring treatment and control experimental conditions at
    post-test?
    (2) What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement
    and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions at post-test?
    (3) What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement
    and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions of males
    83 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    and females at post-test?
    (4) What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement,
    cognitive restructuring treatment and the control experimental conditions
    at follow-up test?
    (5) What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement
    and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions at follow-up
    test?
    (6) What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to selfmanagement
    and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions of males and
    females at follow-up test?
    Hypotheses
    The following hypotheses were formulated to guide the study and tested at 0.05 alpha level of
    significance thus:
    (1) There is no significant difference in the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of
    participants exposed to self-management, cognitive restructuring treatments and the
    control experimental conditions at post–test.
    (2) The difference in the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to
    self-management and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions at posttest
    is not significant.
    (3) There is no significant difference in the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of
    participants exposed to self-management and cognitive restructuring treatment
    experimental conditions of males and females at post-test.
    (4) The difference in the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to
    self-management, cognitive restructuring treatment and the control experimental
    conditions at follow-up test is not significant.
    (5) There is no significant difference in the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of
    participants exposed to self-management and cognitive restructuring treatments
    experimental conditions at follow-up test.
    (6) The difference in the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants exposed to
    self-management, cognitive restructuring treatments and control experimental
    conditions of males and females at follow-up test is not significant.
    The presentations are organised under the research questions and related hypotheses.
    Methodology
    This study adopted a quasi-experimental research study involving post-test, control
    group and follow-up design. The research study had three experimental groups (two treatment
    groups and a control group (which members did not receive the actual treatment)…
    The population for this study was made up of all the junior secondary school (JSS II)
    students in all the three boarding junior secondary schools in Rivers State where this study was
    carried out with a total number of about 3,009 students (1906 males and 1103 females) in Rivers
    State.
    Source: Rivers State Schools Education Management Board (RSSEMB), 2018
    The sample size for this study consisted of 42 junior secondary school students who were
    between the ages of 11-13 years and who exhibited social anxiety behaviour disorder from the
    population of the study. The sample size was drawn through purposive sampling technique. It
    was purposive sampling technique because all the students have common problem of social
    anxiety disorder.
    The researchers developed the following instruments- students’ social anxiety behaviour
    identification rating scale (SSABIRS), students’ social anxiety behaviour checklist (SSABC) A,
    B and C. The instruments had two sections ‘A’ and ‘B’. Section ‘A’ contained personal information
    of the participants as name of school, class, sex while section ‘B’ consisted of 20 items which
    focused on social anxiety behaviour of students. The instruments were categorised into four point
    84 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    rating scale of VERY OFTEN, OFTEN, SOMETIMES and RARELY which had 4, 3, 2, 1 points
    respectively. Students who scored 50 and greater were regarded as social anxiety involvement
    students while those who scored 49 and less were considered as social anxiety free.
    To ascertain the face and content validity of the instruments, the researchers sent a drafted
    copy of the instruments together with the topic of study, purpose of the study, research questions,
    and hypotheses to three specialists in Guidance and Counselling and two specialists in
    Educational Measurement and Evaluation who were requested to check the suitability of the
    items, the clarity of language and content coverage. Their suggestions, observations and
    corrections were incorporated into the final draft of the instruments.
    The final draft of the instruments were trial-tested on forty (40) students who were
    boarding junior secondary school (JSS II) students outside the study sample, in Bayelsa State.
    Cronbach Alpha statistics was used to test the internal consistency reliability of the first
    instrument
    The data collected from the pre-test, post-test treatment as well as the follow-up were
    statistically analysed using mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions while
    analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 alpha level of
    significance.
    Results of Data Analysis Concerning Research Question One and Hypothesis One.
    Research Question One: What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants
    exposed to self-management, cognitive restructuring treatme nts and control experimental
    conditions at post-test?
    Table 1
    Presented in Table 1 are the means and standard deviations responses to social anxiety
    behaviour of participants exposed to self-management (SM), cognitive restructuring (CR) and
    control (CG) at the post-test treatment administrations. The mean responses to social anxiety
    behaviour of the participants exposed to SMT, CRT and CG at the pre-test administrations are
    66.00, 64.71 and 68.71 respectively. Similarly, their respective standard deviations in the pre-test
    administrations are 8.74, 6.60 and 7.78 respectively. Also, the means responses to social anxiety
    behaviour of the participants exposed to SM, CR and CG at the post-test treatment administration
    are 37.71, 36.93 and 67.93 respectively. Similarly, their respective standard deviations in the posttest
    treatment administration are 4.03, 4.76 and 8.00. From observation, there are reductions in the
    mean responses. From the same table 1, the t-cal is 186.212 and the t-crit is 0.000. Since the t-cal is
    greater than the t-crit, there is a significant difference between students who were exposed to
    treatment with self-management (SM) and cognitive restructuring (CR) techniques and those
    who were not exposed to treatment with self-management and cognitive restructuring on social
    anxiety behaviours.
    Research Question Two: What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants
    exposed to self-management and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions at
    post-test?
    Table 2
    Pre-test Post-test Administration
    Group ?? ??? ?? ??? ??
    T-cal
    T-crit
    SMT 14 66.00 8.74 37.71 4.03
    CRT 14 64.71 6.60 36.93 4.76
    Control 14 68.71 7.78 67.93 8.00
    186.212
    0.000
    85 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Presented in Table 2 are the mean responses to social anxiety behaviour of participants
    exposed to self-management (SM) and cognitive restructuring (CR) treatment at the pre-test and
    post-test administration. The mean responses to social anxiety behaviour of the participants
    exposed to SM and cognitive restructuring at the pre-test administration are 66.00 and 64.71
    respectively. Similarly, their respective standard deviations in the pre-test administration are
    8.74 and 6.60. Also, the mean responses to social anxiety behaviour of the participants exposed
    to SM and CR at the post-treatment administration are 37.71 and 36.93. Similarly, their
    respective standard deviations at post treatment administration are 4.03 and 4.76 respectively.
    This showed significant improvement of social anxiety after the application of SM and CR.
    From the table, the t-cal is 0.144 while the t-crit is 4.04. Here, the t-cal value of 0.144 is less than
    the t-crit value of 4.04 explaining that the hypothesis two is retained.
    Research Question three: What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants
    exposed to self-management and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental conditions of
    males and females at post-test?
    Table 3
    Under the pre-test administration with treatment of SMT and CRT, the scores for the
    males are 67.29 and 64.71, females are 8.65 and 7.28 respectively. The male scores under the
    post-test administration with SMT and CRT are 64.71 and 63.43 respectively. Similarly under
    the post-test administration using SMT and CRT, the scores of males are 38.00 and 37.14 while
    for the females are 4.40 and 5.46, 37.43, 38.71 and 3.95 and 4.39 respectively. The t-cal is
    361.733 while t-crit is 4.28. Since the t-cal is greater than the t-ccrit, it implies that the
    hypothesis of no significant difference between students who received treatment with SMT and
    CRT is upheld.
    Research Question four: What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of
    participants exposed to self-management, cognitive restructuring treatment and control
    experimental conditions at follow-up?
    Table 4, Mean and Standard Deviations Scores of Participants Exposed to SM, CR and
    CG Experimental Conditions at Follow-up test.
    Pre-Test Treatment Post-Test Treatment
    Group ?? ??? ?? ??? ??
    T-cal
    T-crit
    SMT 14 66.00 8.74 37.71 4.03
    CRT 14 64.71 6.60 36.93 4.76
    0.144
    4.04
    Pre-Test Administration Post-Test Treatment
    Male Female Male Female
    Group ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??
    T-cal
    T-crit
    SMT 7 67.29 8.65 7 64.71 9.30 7 38.00 4.40 7 37.43
    3.95
    CRT 7 64.71 7 .28 7 63.43 6.13 7 37.14 5.46 7 36.71
    4.39
    361.733
    4.28
    86 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    The mean responses to social anxiety behaviour of the participants exposed to SM,
    CR and CG experimental conditions at post-test administration are 38.00, 37.14 and 69.00
    respectively Similarly, standard deviations are 4.40, 5.46 and 7.12. Also, the mean
    responses to SM, CR, and CG are 37.43, 36.71 and 68.43. Their standard deviations are
    3.95, 4.39 and 8.96. The t-cal is 237.096 and t-crit is 4.28 respectively. Since the t-cal is
    greater than the t-crit the hypothesis is discarded
    Results of Data Analysis Concerning Research Question Five and Hypothesis Five
    Research Question Five: What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of
    participants exposed to self-management and cognitive restructuring treatment
    experimental conditions at follow-up test?
    Table 5
    Presented in Table 9 are the mean responses to social anxiety behaviour of
    participants exposed to self-management (SM), and cognitive restructuring (CR)
    treatments at the post-test and follow-up test administrations. The mean responses are
    37.71 and 36.93. Similarly, their respective standard deviations in the same post-test
    treatment administration are 4.03 and 4.76 respectively. Besides, the mean responses of the
    participants to social anxiety behaviour at follow-up test administration are, 38.14 and
    37.43 respectively. Again, their standard deviation scores are 4.42 and 5.46 respectively.
    The t-cal is 0.44 while the t-crit is 4.07. The t-cal is less than the t-crit, so the null hypothesis
    five is accepted.
    Results of Data Analysis Concerning Research Question Six and Hypothesis Six
    Research Question Six: What are the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants
    exposed to self-management and cognitive restructuring treatment experimental
    conditions of males and females at follow-up test?
    Table 6, Mean and Standard Deviation Scores of Male and Female Participants
    Exposed to SM and CR at Post-test and follow-up Treatment administration
    87 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    The SM and CR at the post-test administration are 39.71 and 36.93 respectively.
    Similarly, their respective standard deviations in the post-test administration are 8.74 and 6.60
    respectively. For the female participants in the two treatment groups at the post-test treatment
    administration; their mean responses are 37.71 and 36.93. Their respective standard deviations
    are 4.03 and 4.76 respectively. At the follow-up test, the mean responses of male participants in
    the SM and CR are 38.00 and 37.14. Also, their standard deviations scores are 4.41 and 5.46. The
    mean responses of the females at the follow-up are 36.43 and 36.71 and their respective standard
    deviation scores are 3.95, 4.39 and 9.39 respectively. The t-cal is 28.679 and t-crit is 0.000
    respectively. With the t-cal greater than the t-crit, the null hypothesis six is accepted.
    Discussion of Findings
    There was a significant difference in the mean social anxiety behaviour scores of participants
    exposed to treatment on self-management, cognitive restructuring treatment and control
    experimental conditions of boarding junior secondary school students at post-test administration.
    This means that the treatments with self-management (SM) had significant impact on social
    anxiety behaviours of students as was supported by Hamza (2017), Killian and Okoye (2017) &
    Graham (2015).
    According to Abodike (2016) cognitive restructuring is an effective weapon to flog to death
    social anxiety behaviour of the secondary school students. Kolo (2017), Sambo (2018), & Totan
    and Sahin (2015) extended credence and similarly supported the effectiveness of cognitive
    restructuring in the treatment of social anxiety. Ngozi and Henetu (2016) clearly believe that
    cognitive restructuring is an instrument to remood the behaviour of an individual who has the
    challenges of shyness which is friendly to social anxiety behaviours. There was no significant
    difference in the mean social anxiety behaviour of students who were treated with cognitive
    restructuring treatment and control experimental conditions at the post-test treatment
    administration. Uba and Idieune (2016) and Egbezor, (2015) in support of the males and females
    not showing any difference in their behaviours after treatment with cognititive restructuring and
    self-management accepted that both sexes received treatments equally, yet ascertained that
    cognitive restructuring and self-management are capable of squashing out fear which is in
    romance with social anxiety behaviours of secondary school students.
    Recommendations
    Based on the conclusion and findings of the study, the researcher made the following
    recommendations:
12. Counsellors and teachers in schools should employ self-management and cognitive
    restructuring techniques in the treatment of social anxiety and other similar psychological
    behaviours as to increase and instil effective public presentations among students
13. Counsellors should organise workshops and orientation services for parents and teachers on
    the importance of the application of self-management and cognitive restructuring techniques
    in changing wrong social behavioural patterns of students at the developmental stage of their
    life.
    88 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
14. Schools should consistently endear students to school activities like debate. drama, quiz,
    symposium, asking and answering of questions in class among others to enrich skill of
    interaction among students.
15. Self-management and cognitive restructuring techniques should be prescribed in the curriculum
    of study as a subject for the junior secondary school students since the techniques have proved
    very effective in the treatment of social anxiety behaviour of students.
    Conclusion
    After experiments, self-management and cognitive restructuring techniques were found to be
    rewarding in the treatment of social anxiety behaviours of students. But the techniques failed to
    depict reasonable differences in scores between the males and females who participated in the
    experiments. So, no clear indication of differences between males and females during treatment.
    Reference
    Abode, N. A. and Ebenebe, R.C.(2016). Effect of cognitive restructuring on lying tendency yamong
    secondary school students in Awka education zone. Journal of educational psychology,10
    (1), 232-239.
    Egbezor, D.E. (2015). Behaviour: problems in Nigeria schools: A sociological perspective. Port
    Harcourt: Akporkam International.
    Graham, S. (2015). Communicating low ability in the classroom, bad things, good teachers
    sometimes. The counsellor, 1 (1), 45-54
    Hamza, (2017). Effect of social instability, poor emotional awareness and development of border line
    personality in senior secondary schools. The Counsellor, 4 (3), 23-32.
    Ikpeazu, R and Njoku, C.T. (2010). Relationship between peer pressure time management and
    academic performance of in-school adolescents. Owerri: Career publishers limited
    Kolo, E.D. (2017). Condition, technique and process for effective counselling. Jos: Jofegans
    Associates.
    Killian, E.N. and Okoiye, S.A. (2017). Academic self-efficacy, examination anxiety and peer
    influence as correlate of academic achievement motivation of secondary school students in
    Benin, Edo state, Nigeria. The educational psychologist, 10 (1), 187-193
    Ndubuisi, E., Ngozi, B., & Honetu, P. C.O. (2016). Managing anger among secondary school
    students: using aggression replacement training and cognitive restructuring behaviour
    therapy objective. The educational psychologist, 10 (1), 232-240.
    Nwankwo, O.C. (2015). Applications of behaviour modification. Port-Harcourt: Pam unique
    Publishers Company Limited.
    Ndubuisi, Ngozi, H. & Idieune A. (2016). Application of the Therapeutic principles of behaviour
    modification. Owerri: career publishers.
    Ndubuisi, E., Ngozi, B., & Honetu, P. C.O. (2016). Managing anger among secondary school
    students: using aggression replacement training and cognitive restructuring behaviour
    therapy objective. The educational psychologist, 10 (1), 232-240.
    Onyekuru and Okpara, G. (2015).Relationship between broken homes and academic achievement of
    secondary school students. Journal of education research and statistics, 3 (2), 251-264.
    Rey, F.D., Orts, N.K., & Extremera, Z.D. (2015). Effect of self-management and cognitive
    restructuring on senior secondary school students emotions in Spain, Spain: Guilford
    Publication
    Sambo, F. (2018).Effect of self-management on students’ academic achievement on mole concept in
    senior secondary school, zonal education authority, Jos municipal town. Journal of
    Personality development, 7 (3), 18-25
    Tracy, N. T. (2017). Psychology of learning. Owerri: Mankpa publishers
    Totan & Sahhin (2015).Effect of assertive technique on enhancing shyness among primary school
    pupils in Onitsha urban of Anambra State. Journal of Educational psychology, 10 (1), 210-
    217
    89 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    ASSESSMENT OF WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT
    PROGRAMMES IN RIVERS STATE
    by
    UEDEME, NEKABARI LEGBORSI & DR. MRS. AJIE, EUNICE NGOZI
    Abstract
    This research was carried out to assess women’s participation in rural development
    programmes. This study took place in randomly selected communities in the three (3) Senatorial
    Districts in Rivers State. It involved three hundred (300) women comprising married and single
    women spread over thirty (30) Communities in six (6) Local Government Areas from each zone,
    using a multistage sampling technique. Data collection was done using well-structured
    questionnaire administered on women of both categories. Four (4) research questions and four
    (4) null hypothesis were statistically tested. Data was analyzed using Pearson’s Product
    Moment Correlation Co-efficient (R), to test the relationship between married and single
    women’s participation in rural development programme. This study revealed that out of the
    four hypothesis tested, three (3) showed that there was a significant relationship between
    married and single women in their participations in rural development programmes while only
    one (1) showed zero significance. This means that women greatly participate in rural
    development programmes irrespective of their marital status. Recommendations were made
    towards enhancing effective participation of women in rural development programmes. These
    include: ensuring adequate grassroot sensitization for rural development programmes to
    create awareness and foster full participation. Full integration of women in the planning,
    implementation and monitoring of rural development programmes to ensure effective grassroot
    participation. Economic, educational, social and political improvement of women in order to
    effectively contribute their quota to the development of the society. Successive Governments
    should consolidate on programmes established by past administration and effectively monitor
    and evaluate them to deliver on their mandates.
    Keywords: Development, Programmes, Community Development, Rural Development
    Introduction
    Over the years, women in Nigeria have made several contributions in their respective
    families in particular and communities in general. This is because apart from the production of
    food through farming which is misconstrued as women activity, women are also involved in
    other agricultural activities such as the growing of cash crops and rearing of animals. Infact in
    most African communities, women grow most of the corps, do the marketing of the farm
    produce, fetch firewood and water besides raising of children. According to Ukonze (2001)
    rural women provide sixty to eighty percent of agricultural labour and they participate in all
    aspects of production.
    Despite the fact that the roles played by rural women in most activities are visible
    enough to see, the participation of women in development programmes are not enhanced.
    Commenting on women and rural development in Nigeria, Akpan (2015) opined that women in
    rural areas are involved in several productive activities, yet their roles are never reflected in the
    mainstream of public development agenda.
    Uedeme, Nekabari Legborsi, Department of Agricultural Education, School of Secondary Education (Vocational),
    Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State & Dr. Mrs. Ajie, Eunice Ngozi, Department of
    Agriculture, Faculty of Vocational and Technical Education, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education,
    Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.
    90 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    In a typical African society, it is a well-known fact that the sex of any child determines
    the kind of treatment that will be given to that child. So the gender of a child determines the
    parental handling of and response to the child in terms of training. In fact, in many parts of the
    world including Nigeria, a woman who produces only female children is almost considered a
    barren woman. This is true because the society does not only appreciate the male child but so
    much adores the male child even above the mother that gave birth to him. It is widely believed
    that the male child would ensure continuity of lineage and protection of the family’s properties.
    This is why in most cultures; the birth of a male child stimulates endless merriment and
    appreciations by the parents.
    Culturally speaking, in some parts of Rivers State notably, Omoku, Bonny, Gokana,
    etc, women are barred from watching or participating in certain cultural displays including
    seeing, particular types of masquerades due to some superstitious beliefs that seeing them will
    provoke difficulties during child birth or giving birth to children looking like the masquerades.
    Numerous evidences from studies abound to substantiate the fact that male children in most
    parts of the world are preferred to the female children. This explains why most female children
    are denied good education, good health, economic opportunities and even the right to make
    choices concerning their marriage partners. In fact in situations of extreme scarcity of
    resources, the disadvantaged innocent girl child is married off against her will and choice just to
    use her bride price to train the boys or set up a business to salvage the family even though she
    also needs education.
    Commenting on the issue of educational discrimination of women, Egbezor and
    Nwaenyi (2001) indicated that women are under social stress as they stand being pulled by the
    social values of early marriage and a desire to explore one’s full intellectual potentials in
    academic pursuits. They further opined that there is no reason why girls from communities or
    societies that favour early marriage would not go through secondary education as married
    women under carefully controlled conditions.
    It is against this backdrop that the Federal government of Nigeria in successive
    administrations set up various rural development programmes in a bid to champion the course
    of women in the society, thereby enhancing their economic power and alleviate poverty among
    Nigerians. Some of these programmes include but not limited to:
    Directorate of food, Roads and Rural infrastructure (DFRRI) set up in the year 1996,
    family support program (FSP-1994), Better Life Programme for rural women (BLP – 1987).
    Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP -1998), National Poverty Eradication
    Programme (NAPEP – 2001), Poverty Alleviation Programme (PAP- 2000), Agricultural
    Development Programmes (ADP – 1975), Oil palm Rehabilitation Programme (ORP),
    Freedom From Hunger Campaign (FFHC), Nigerian Agricultural Land Development Authority
    (NALDA), National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (Needs- 2003 –
    2007), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), Mass Mobilization for Social and Economic
    Recovery (MAMSER) among others.
    It is pertinent to know that the cardinal focus of the avalanche of the entire past and
    present rural development programme introduced in Nigeria is to alleviate or eradicate poverty
    and stimulate development right from the family to the national level. But this cannot be
    achieved holistically if women participation cannot be measured in absolute terms in every state
    of the federation.
    Objective of the Study
    The broad objective of the study is to assess women’s participation in rural development
    programmes in Rivers State. The specific objectives of the study are to:
    i. Investigate the involvement of women in the economic development of Rivers State.
    ii. Ascertain the level of women participation in educational development of Rivers State.
    91 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    iii. Examine women involvement in the social development of Rivers State; and
    iv. Investigate the extent to which women are involved in the political development of
    Rivers State.
    Significance of the Study
    Generally speaking, women have interest to participate in government rural
    development programmes. However, most of them who lack interest and are not properly
    informed, see participation in rural development programmes as something meant only for the
    wealthy and highly educated women. It is therefore very necessary to assess the level of
    participation of women towards achieving the objectives of various development programme
    of government in order to make recommendations that will help activate the interests of women
    as well as enhance their participation in government development policies and programmes.
    It is of tremendous importance to identify some of the factors which influence the level
    of women’s participation in rural development programmes. This will enable them appreciate
    the effects of such participation on the development of their families, communities and the
    society at large. On the long run, it will bring about the development of new strategies which
    will enhance participation in order to promote women’s positive attitudes towards the rural
    development policies and programmes of government in the state.
    Results from this study will help government agencies, non-governmental agencies,
    wives of presidents, governors, local government chairmen and women leaders recognize the
    importance and usefulness of women and create awareness among the women to enhance their
    participation in government policies and programmes. Consequently, women and their leaders
    will appreciate the need for active participation of women in rural development programmes.
    Theoretical Framework
    The study was premised on the participatory development theory. As a strategy for rural
    development, the participatory development theory holds that there should be a collective
    participation of the people in the process of making decisions especially in the programmes that
    have direct bearing on their lives. Nkom (1995), noted that the theory is built on the assumption
    that no government or agency, no matter its resources or paternalistic commitment, can develop
    the rural areas without the active involvement of the rural people themselves and without
    tapping their wisdom, talents, resources and institutions as foundations for development.
    Nwosu (2009) noted that the participatory development model further assumes that people will
    identify with and appreciate any development programme only when they are effectively
    informed of the programme in terms of its nature, sponsorship, functionality, benefits, the role
    they are expected to play and wider expectations of the project on their community. This view
    synchronizes with the observations made by the technical centre for Agriculture and rural
    cooperatives (C.T.A, 1999) that unless there is full participation of the rural people in the whole
    process of rural development, there will not be any sustainable development.
    Since participation must be full for development to be sustained among the rural people.
    It is therefore important to note that there is need for equal participation of the male and female
    folks, as any discrimination against the latter is tantamount to partial participation and will
    affect women’s participation in rural development. Since development is not genderized, the
    roles of women in development programmes should not be genderized.
    Methodology
    The study area is Rivers State. Rivers State is one of the 36 (thirty six) states of the
    Federal Republic of Nigeria. The state which was created from the then Eastern Region of
    Nigeria by Decree No.19 on May 27, 1967, is the heart of the hydro-carbon industry responsible
    for a huge chunk of the nation’s foreign exchange earnings (Rivers State Diary, 2014). Rivers
    92 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    State is located between latitudes 4o15’N and 5o 45’N and longitudes 6o 22’E and 7o 35’E (Google
    Earth). Due to its strategic importance in the nation’s economy, the state is known as the
    Treasure Base of the Nation and its capital Port Harcourt is described as the garden city of
    Nigeria.
    The state is bounded on the North by Imo and Anambra States, on the South by the
    Atlantic Ocean, on the East by AkwaIbom and Abia States, and on the West by Bayelsa and
    Delta States. The State which is situated in the Niger Delta region, has a topography of flat
    plains with a network of rivers and tributaries which include Orashi, Bonny, New Calabar,
    Bartholomew and Sombreiro Rivers (Rivers State Diary, 2014).
    Rivers State has a tropical climate and vast areas of arable land. The major occupations are
    fishing and farming, commerce and industry.
    The state which occupies an area of 21,859 km, has a projected population of about
    5.6million people (Rivers State Diary, 2014). The various ethnic groups include Abua, Andoni,
    Ekpeye, Engenni, Etche, Ibani, Igbani, Ikwerre, Kalabari, Ndoni, Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni, Ogoni
    and Okrika.
    The state is made up of three senatorial districts which include Rivers West, Rivers
    South East and Rivers East. The state has a total of 23 Local Government Areas distributed
    across the 3 Senatorial districts thus: Rivers East – Port Harcourt, Ikwerre, Okrika, Ogu-Bolo,
    Obio-Akpor, Etche, Omuma and Emohua LGAs.
    Rivers West – Onelga, Ahoada West, Ahoada East, Abua/Odual, Degema, Akuku-toru,
    Asari-toru, and Bonny LGAs. Rivers South East – OpoboNkoro, Andoni, Oyigbo, Tai, Eleme,
    Khana, and Gokana LGAs.
    The sample size of 300 women drawn from the three senatorial districts of the State was
    used through a multistage sampling technique. In stage one, all the women in the three
    senatorial districts of the State (i.e. Rivers East, Rivers West and Rivers South East) were
    purposively selected. This was to ensure adequate representation of the various zones that make
    up the state. For stage two, six (6) Local Government Areas (two from each zone) were
    randomly selected. In stage three, five (5) Communities were randomly selected from each of
    the local Government Areas selected.
    In the fourth stage, ten (10) women were randomly selected from each of the five (5)
    communities selected. This gave rise to a total of 300 women used for the study.
    Data collection was done using well-structured questionnaire comprising of two sections (A
    and B). Section A contained personal data of the respondents while Section B contained the
    various response labels. The questionnaire was divided into four parts namely Economic
    Development, Educational Development, Social Development and Political Development.
    Questions were asked on each of the variables with response labels against it. The questions
    were designed in such a way that reflected the participation of women (married and single) in
    rural development programmes. The questionnaire was given directly to each woman to supply
    her responses while the researcher explained the questions. Personal interviews were also used
    to elicit information from the respondents.
    Based on the data collected, the respondents were grouped on the basis of married and
    single women in the selected communities in the six (6) Local Government Areas used for the
    study.The initial analysis involved frequency runs of the variables. Then, the response labels in
    the questionnaire were assigned scores ranging from 1 – 4 thus: 4 for Strongly Agree (SA), 3 for
    Agree (A), 2 for Strongly Disagree (SD) and 1 for Disagree (D) respectively. The total scores
    for a given variable were added up and divided by the total number of response labels in order to
    get the mean score to work with. The mean score obtained was then used to determine whether
    an item in the questionnaire was accepted or rejected by the respondents in each of the
    development programmes. Any score above the mean was accepted while any score below the
    93 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    mean was rejected. The number of accepted and rejected items were then sorted out in all the four
    developmental indices. The null hypothesis was tested using the Pearson Product Moment
    Correlation Coefficient ®to test the relationship between married and single women’s
    participation in rural development programmes.
    RESULT AND DISCUSSION
    The table below shows the results of estimated Pearson Correlation Analysis
    SOURCE: Estimates from Field survey data, 2018. Sig (2-tailed) = t estimated at two-tailed c
    significance level; ** = significant at 5% level; * = significant at 10% level. Cohen (1988)
    graded the Pearson correlation strength of relationships as follows: small effect, R = ± 0.1-0.29
    (i.e. 10% to 29%); medium effect, R = ± 0.30-0.49 (i.e. 30% to 49%); large effect, R = ± 0.50-
    1.00 (i.e. 50% to 100%).
    Hypothesis 1
    Ho There is no significant relationship between married and single women’s 1
    participation in economic development.
    The results on Table above showed that the estimated R (i.e. the correlation coefficient)
    was 0.966 and the R2 (coefficient of determination) was 0.933 for the examined variables
    (married and single women). These results showed that the variables were strongly positively
    correlated showing R (96.6%) and 93.3% for coefficient of determination (R2). Cohen (1988)
    graded the Pearson correlation strength of relationships as follows: small effect, R = ± 0.1-0.29
    (i.e. 10% to 29%); medium effect, R = ± 0.30-0.49 (i.e. 30% to 49%); large effect, R = ± 0.50-
    1.00 (i.e. 50% to 100%).
    This means that the participation of married women in economic development has a
    strong positive correlation with the single women’s participation in economic development.
    Using a two-tailed significance t-test, the Pearson Correlation t-test value estimated was 5.2847,
    while the t value was 4.30 (tabular value). These results indicated that there was a significant 0.05
    relationship between married and single women’s participation in economic development at 5%
    level of significance (P < 0.05). Therefore, both married and single women greatly participate in
    economic development in Rivers State. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected and the
    alternative hypothesis accepted.
    Hypothesis 2
    94 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    HO There is no significant relationship between married and single women’s 2
    participation in educational development.
    The results on table above indicated that the correlation coefficient R was 0.899 and the
    coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.808 for the variables married and single women’s
    participations. This showed a strong positive relationship of 89.9% for R and 80.8% for R2. This
    means that the participation of married women in educational development strongly positively
    correlates with the single women’s participation in educational development in Rivers State.
    Using a one-tailed significant t-test, the estimated t-value (t ) was 2.9014, while the t = 1.89 c 0.01
    showing a significant level of 10%. Hence, this study rejected the null hypothesis (H ) that there 0
    is no significant relationship between married and single women’s participation in educational
    development. This means that, women participate very well in educational development
    irrespective of their marital status.
    Hypothesis 3
    HO There is no significant relationship between married and single women’s 3
    participation in social development.
    Table above also indicated the estimated Pearson correlation analysis results on married
    and single women’s participation in social development in Rivers State. This result showed that
    the estimated correlation coefficient (R) was 0.677, while the coefficient of determination (R2)
    was 0.458 indicating 67.7% for R and 45.8% for R2. This showed that women’s participation in
    social development in Rivers State was low. The estimated t-value (t ) was 1.3005 while the c
    tabular value at t was 1.89, hence, was not significant even at 10% level. The estimated t-value 0.05
    (t ) not being significant confirms the weak nature of the correlation analysis. However, this c
    result is surprising as it was expected that married and single women’s participation in social
    development should be significantly related at least at 10% level of significance.
    This means that there is no significant relationship between married and single women’s
    participation in social development in Rivers State. The null hypothesis (H ) that there is no 0
    significant relationship between married and single women’s participation in social
    development was therefore accepted.
    Hypothesis 4
    HO There is no significant relationship between married and single women’s 4
    participation in political development.
    The results of the Pearson correlation analysis on married and single women’s
    participation in political development, showed that the estimated correlation coefficient (R) was
    0.957 while the coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.916. These results showed a good
    positive correlation of R = 95.7% and R2 = 91.6%. This is to say that, the variables were strongly
    positively correlated. The two-tailed t-test results showed an estimated t value of 4.6701 while c
    the t was 4.30. This showed a 5% level of significance between the two variables. Hence, this 0.05
    study rejected the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between married and
    single women’s participation in political development, and accepted the alternative hypothesis
    (H ) that they are related significantly at 5% level of significance. 1
    Conclusion and Recommendations
    The findings of this study has led to the following conclusions:
    a. There is a significant relationship between married and single women’s participation in
    rural development programmes.
    b. Women are interested in participating in government’s development programmes but are
    not properly sensitized.
    c. Women’s participation in government’s rural development programmes is influenced by
    95 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    their marital status.
    Based on the findings and conclusions reached in this study, the following
    recommendations are proffered:
    i. Government should ensure adequate grass root sensitization for any rural development
    programmes in order to create the desired awareness and hence foster full participation
    of women in such programmes.
    ii. Government should fully integrate the women in the planning, implementation and
    monitoring of rural development programmes to ensure effective grassroot
    participation as well as the participation of people on whose lives the programmes have
    direct bearing.
    iii. Women should improve themselves educationally, politically, economically and
    socially in order to effectively contribute their quota to the development of the society.
    iv. Government should embark on effective monitoring and evaluation of rural
    development programmes to enable her achieve the objectives and mandates of such
    programmes and curtail the sabotaging activities of middlemen.
    References
    Abantu for Development (2004). The women manifesto for Ghana. Accra, Ghana: The
    Coalition for Women’s Manifesto in Ghana.
    Akpan N.S. (2015). Women and rural development in Nigeria: Some critical issues for policy
    consideration. Social sciences 4(5), 110 – 118, Doi: 10.11648/j.ss.20150405.11
    CTA (1999) The economics role of women in agricultural and rural d e v e l o p m e n t :
    promoting income generating activities, Summary report of a seminar,
    Athens, Greece, Oct. 18-22.
    Egbezor D.E. and NwaenyiK.O. (2001). Sociology of education for contemporary students in
    tertiary institutions. Akure: Stebak Publishers.
    Ekong E. Ekong (2010) An introduction to rural sociology,(2nd edition). Dove Educational
    Publishers, 80 Wellington Bassey way, Uyo, Nigeria.
    FAO (2011) The state of food and agriculture: women in agriculture, closing the gender gap for
    development.
    Nwosu, I.E. (2009) Rural mobilization for development in Nigeria. Snaap Press Ltd.
    Enugu.
    Nkom, S.A. (1995) The modernization approach to rural development: A theoretical synthesis
    and critique. Issues in tourism planning and development. Nigeria: Afro Orbis, 16-17,
    1995
    Rivers State Diary, (2014), Port Harcourt.
    Ukonze, J.A. (2001). “Strategies for improving the participation of women farmers in rural
    production systems, A case study of Njikoka Local Government Area of Anambra
    State”. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of
    Nigeria, Nsukka.
    MATURITY INDICES OF VEGETABLES, FRUITS, ROOTS, TUBERS
    AND SPICES CROPS.
    96 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    by
    INNOCENT O. ODU
    Abstract
    The timing of crops (maturity indices) significantly affects the duration of storage,
    quality parameters at the present time of harvest, postharvest, shelf life and commercial
    activities/ operations; to ensure that crop produce maintains and retains good quality and
    stability during storage. They should be harvested at the accurate /appropriate time; maturity
    indices is a prime factor which can be used to manage and minimize farm-to-market
    perishability; first step in postharvest life of crop produce is timely harvest for most fruits and
    vegetables which are harvested manually. The maturity and harvest of produce has an
    important bearing on the commercial operations, quality and freshness assurance, the degree
    of maturity and time of harvest dictates how the produce can be handled; transported and
    marketed. Maturity indices of some crop produce indicates that it is due for consumption in
    spite of the fact that ripening has not taken place; ripening is an indication that maturity index
    has been manifested, some produce (fruits and vegetables) are harvested with little or no sign of
    ripening, and the indicator for harvest is the maturity index. The manifestation of maturity
    indices varies depending on the part or parts of the crop utilized; some crops are desired at the
    early stage when it is fresh and succulent; others at the mid stage of development when they are
    partially matured; in all, at any stage a produce is desired, there is maturity index shown. When
    ripening is fully initiated, the produced is over matured and senescence is bound to take place. It
    is at this level that crop produce spoilage becomes the order of the day.
    Key words: Maturity, indices and spices crops.
    Introduction
    Maturity and time of harvest of crop produce is of paramount importance to the length of
    which the produce would last if not processed to transform from the raw state to more/none
    easily perishable product. Crop maturity has signs that accompany it. These signs are called
    maturity indices (plural) and vary amongst crops. The sign(s) is an indication that the produce is
    due for harvest. At this stage, if not harvested, senescence sets-in. A fully matured crop produce
    neither grows (increase in size) but stunted (the same in size). When harvest is prolonged or
    delayed, the produce is just a step away to lose its freshness, good quality and eventually
    spoilage before it completes the channels of distribution. According to Akinwande, et al.,
    (2008) “The use of crop maturity index ward-off early spoilage of produce till it gets to the final
    consumers”. They observed that degradation sets-in as the product voyages through the line of
    commerce. Early harvest of crop limits spoilage and financial loss on the part of whole-sellers
    and retailers. The handling and marketing of over matured or over riped produce is
    cumbersome, compared to moderately matured produce since spoilage is delayed (Djatt and
    Mahajan 2007). Little sign of ripening (maturity index) favours the local market that is
    evidently distant from the point of production and the processing industries. Gast, (1992)
    declared that over ripening of fruits and vegetable crops before harvest accounts for 32% of
    damage by field pests which leads to disease infestation and renders fruits and vegetables
    unattractive and unmarketable and thus reduce the value of the produce and income of the
    farmer.
    Maturity indices of crops plays a vital role to determine harvest time. The manifestation
    of maturity indices is a conspicuous indication that growth has stopped. The crop becomes
    Innocent O. Odu, Department of Agric Education, FCE (T), Omoku.
    97 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    redundant and indispensable; physiological processes for falling off from parent crop takes
    place.
    Contemporary Definitions of The Concept
    The terms “mature” and “ripe” are used interchangeably in the case of fruits and
    vegetables, but ripening does not apply to root and tuber crops. According to Champa, et al.,
    (2008) “A maturity index refers to the visible signs shown in crop produce to mark the end of
    further growth or development. They asserted that it is an indication that development of
    produce has been completed and is ready for harvest and consumption”. In their view, maturity
    is accompanied with the associated index. A maturity index applies to the changes that occur in
    crop produce different from the early stage of development (Kiptorir, 2014). This reveals that
    there are gradual changes in crop produce as it attains maturity. These changes are fully noticed
    when the development of the embryo has been completed. The author of this paper agrees with
    the above definitions and horticulturally defined maturity indices as: “The observable signs
    exhibited by crop produce, proceeding crop physiological senescences”. Maturity is a
    developmental stage in which crop or crop parts possess the prerequisite for use by consumers
    for a particular reason or purpose. Most fruits, vegetables, spices, roots and tubers show
    maturity indices at the early stage of their development. However, crops like squash, zucchini,
    etc attain maturity at different stages of their development.
    Determination of Maturity Indices in Vegetables and Fruits (Okra and Banana)
    Quantitatively, the difference between edibility and maturity of vegetables and fruits is
    separated by a thin line. Some fruits and vegetables mature but still green, e.g, banana. At this
    stage, the edibility is just optimal. The eating quality of fruits is best only when maturity indices
    and moderate ripening has taken place (Abel, 2015). Fruits and vegetables indices are very
    essential to farmers, traders and consumers to determine the harvest of produce (Sarananda,
    2000). Gast, (1992) identified the following as the strategies to observe maturity indices of
    produce:
16. The use of taste panels to determine the value of the maturity index.
17. To observe changes in the produce throughout its developmental stages.
18. To use storage trial and organoleptic assays.
19. To look out for features such as size, solidity, colour, etc that correlates with quality and
    edibility.
    These strategies are aimed towards harvesting crop produce (fruits or vegetables) when
    ripening is moderate to avoid damage and wastage.
    Properties for Maturity Index Determination for Fruits and Vegetables
    Treche and Agbo-Egbo (1996) presented the observable and measurable maturity
    indices for fruits and vegetables as shown in the table below:
    PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
    Elapsed days from full bloom to harvest. Apple, pears.
    Mean heat units during development. Peas, apple, sweet corn.
    Development of abscission layer. Some melons, apples, feijoas.
    98 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Surface morphology and structure. Cuticle formation on grapes, tomatos. Netting of
    some melons. Gloss of some fruits (development
    of wax).
    Size. All fruits and many vegetables.
    Specific gravity. Cherries, watermelons.
    Shape. Angularity of banana fingers. Full cheeks of
    mangos. Compactness of broccoli and
    cauliflower.
    TEXTURAL PROPERTIES
    Firmness. Apples, Pears, Stone fruits.
    Tenderness. Pears.
    External colour. All fruits and most vegetables.
    Internal colour and structure. Formation of jelly-like material in tomato fruits.
    Fresh colour of some fruits.
    COMPOSITIONAL FACTORS
    Starch content. Apples, Pears.
    Sugar content. Apples, Pears, Stone fruits, grapes
    Acid content, sugar/acid
    ratio.
    Pomegranates, Citrus, Papaya, Melon, kiwifruit.
    Juice content. Citrus fruits.
    Oil Content. Avocados.
    Astringency (tannin content). Persimmons.
    Internal ethylene content ratio. Apples, Pears.
    Table 1: Maturity index for fruits and vegetables
    The elements of maturity indices are physical, textural and compositional factors. These
    factors observe and evaluate distinct aspect of maturity, maturity indices and ripening of crop
    produce. A moderate degree of these elements proves that maturity and ripening has taken place

1. It ensures sensory quality (aroma, flour, colour, texture).
2. It ensures an adequate postharvest life.
3. It facilitates scheduling of harvest and packaging operations.
4. Facilitates e-marketing and direct to local markets, (Kader,1992).
   Conclusion
   The first step in postharvest life of crop produce is the time of harvest. For most fresh
   produce, harvest is manual. The time of produce harvest has direct effect on the quality
   (freshness) and storage and also affects the way and manner they are handled, transported and
   marketed. It is on this backdrop that maturation, maturity, ripe and over ripe are essential
   horticultural elements of field crop husbandry. Maturation indices lead to senescence and death
   of some crops. Inadequate knowledge of farmers causes a huge loss on the part of the farmers
   and marketers. This paper enjoins farmers to properly time and observe maturity indices of
   crops as it shall enhance good quality, storage and marketability to curtail the high degree of loss
   occasioned by over maturity of crops.
   References
   Association of Official Analytical chemists (AOAC) (2000). Methods of analysis, maturity
   index in fruits and vegetables 17th edn. Washington, D.C.
   Method of determination
   Indices
   Cassava & Yam Pepper & Garlic
   Visual Dryness of leaves.
   Size of tuber.
   Dryness of the leaves.
   Size of bulb & fruit.
   Physical Firmness of tuber Firmness of bulb & fruit
   Physiological Position of the crop.
   Soil moisture.
   Nutrient availability.
   Soil type.
   Variation in tuber size.
   Use of hormones to induce
   tuberation.
   Position of the crop.
   Soil moisture.
   Nutrient availability.
   Soil type.
   Variation in bulb & fruit..
   Use of hormones to induce
   bulb & fruitation.
   Chemical Solids.
   Acid.
   Solids of acid ratio.
   Starch content.
   Solids.
   Acid.
   Solids of acid ratio.
   Minerals & vitamin content.
   Computation Counting from the date of
   planting.
   Heat unit.
   Counting from the date of
   planting.
   Heat unit.
   102 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Abel, F. O. (2015). Methods of determining fruit maturity. Journal of Microbiology
   Biotechnology and Food Science 6 (2): 773 – 776.
   Akinwande, B. A., Asiedu, R., Mazina-Dixon, B. and Adeyemi, I. A. (2008). Determination
   of an effective maturity index for white yam (Dioscorea rotundata). Journal of Food,
   Agriculture and Environment 6 (2): 192 – 196.
   Akinwande, B. B., Asiedu, R., Adeyemi, I. A. and Mazina-Dixon, B. (2007). Influence of time
   of harvest on the yield and sensory attributes of food, agriculture and government.
   Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment 5 (2): 179 – 184.
   Champa, W. A. H., Weerakkody, W. A. P. and Pelipane, K. B. (2008). Maturity indices for
   harvesting of beans (Vigina uuguculata). Journal of Tropical Agricultural Research 28:
   123 – – 133.
   Degras, A. T. (1993). The yam: A tropical root crop, 2nd edn. Macmillian Press, London pp. 137
   – 158.
   Djatt, A. S. and Mahajan, B. E. (2007). Harvesting, handling and storage of horticultural crops.
   Punjarb Horticultural Postharvest Technology Culture, p. 5.
   Fasoyiro, S. B. (2004). The value and utilization of spice plants in tropical Africa. Journal of
   Agricultural and Food Information 15 (2): 109 – 120.
   Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2002). Statistical database. https://www.fao.org
   accessed 30th April, 2021.
   Gast, K. L. B. (1992). Harvest maturity indicators for fruits and vegetables. Belzium
   University Agricultural Experiment Station and Co-operative Extension Services.
   Kader, A. A. (1992). Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops. Division of Agricultural
   and Natural Resources, University of California.
   Kipkorir, M. (2014). Maturity signs and harvesting of common crops. Agricultural Business
   Tips. p. 25.
   National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) (2018). Maturity indices of cassava (Manihot
   spp) in the tropical climate. Ibadan.
   Sarananda, K. H. (2000). Report of the APO seminar on appropriate postharvest.
   Treche, S. and Agbo-Egbe, T. (1996). Biochemical changes occurring during growth and
   storage of two yam species. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 47: 93 –
   103.
   103 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   BUILDING SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY AND NATIONAL ECONOMIC
   EMPOWERMENT DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY.
   by
   DR. EKE, FELIX CHIMA
   Abstract
   Increased demands on the built environment requires continued and enhanced research
   and development activities Building System Technology. Traditional building technology can
   be considered to be well developed. Nevertheless society continues to demand improved
   competitiveness, customer and user satisfaction, sustainability, quality and safety of the built
   environment. Global warming is a serious problem facing the world today. In order to stop or
   reverse this problem, the construction industry most change from the traditional method of
   building to the green building concepts. Making building green will greatly impact this
   problem. There are many ways for this to be done. This study pointed out some aspects that
   constitute building technology practices in the building industry in the recent time. The study
   further reveals the impact of building technology and updates the knowledge and skill of
   building practitioners, thereby enhancing the National Economic Empowerment Development
   Strategy (NEEDS).
   Keywords: Building system, technology, national empowerment and development strategy.
   Introduction
   The building industry represents one of the largest, and most important, enterprises in
   the world. For fast-growing economies in the world, there is a growing demand for practical,
   sustainable building designs that will provide a higher standard of living with minimal
   resources demand. Many of these problems are being met by innovations in building
   technology. These innovations, for example, apply recent advances in the fields of materials,
   manufacturing and thermos sciences to the construction of new buildings, to the retrofit or
   rehabilitation of exiting buildings and to the efficient operation of buildings (Elattar, 2009).
   Since the large demand has been placed on building material industry, especially in the
   last decade owing to the increasing population, which causes a chronic shortage of building
   materials, the architects and civil engineers have been challenged to disorder useful building
   and construction materials. The increase in the popularity of using environmental friendly, low
   cost and lightweight construction materials in building industry has brought about the need to
   investigate how this can be achieved by benefiting the environment as well as maintain the
   material requirement affirmed in the standards (Elattar, 2009).
   New developments are made everyday in the field of engineering that are meant to save
   energy and protect the environment. This is a very important time to be conscious of energy
   consumption, due to global warming. Naturally there will be experts constantly creating new
   technologies in this field. While green building construction may appear costly for consumers,
   new developments in the engineering field are providing increasingly cost-effective solutions.
   Even though green engineering is coming to the forefront of society now, it has been around and
   developing for many years.
   Dr. Eke, Felix Chima , Department of Building Technology, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku,
   Rivers State Nigeria.
   104 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Building and the Need for Building
   Building are provided to meet a primary physical human need, which is shelter for man,
   his goods, animals and services. Building are also created by man to meet his spiritual needs,
   recreational activities need and his other works.
   The Function of a Building
   A shelter is primarily a protection from the elements and the function of a building is to
   enclose space and to create a satisfactory (internal environment) relation to the purpose of that
   particular building. This means that the space within the building must provide suitable
   condition which will enhance the proposed activity or purpose of the building. It must also
   provide comfort and security to the occupants. The shelter is therefore referred to as
   “environmental envelop” (Iroegbu, 2003) when it fulfills the above function.
   Weather conditions as experienced through the various weathers pose one problem or
   the other, which is able to affect man and his works. Buildings especially when well designed
   and adequately executed provide a panacea to both weather change and effect.
   The Built Environment
   The element of the built environment consists largely of accommodations for living,
   working, storage, recreation, spiritual needs, facilities for transport, etc. these elements make
   up the built environment made by man for himself over the years (Iroegbu, 2003).
   a) Living Accommodation: This is the dwelling place for man, his family, relative and
   friends. This accommodation protects the man from the elements by providing internal
   condition s favourable to him. It equally, provides a place where one ca separate oneself
   from the activities of office or business at the end of the day’s labour. Living
   accommodation could be in form of bungalows and could also range from low rise
   building which could be either one to three storeys in height while high rise buildings
   are those whose height go beyond seven storeys.
   b) Working Accommodation: This is accommodation provided outside the home or
   dwelling place whose object is to provide an environment suitable enough for man to
   carry out his work which may range from commerce and industry to public works
   places institutions and private business. We therefore have the following groupings:
   i. Factories
   ii. Shops
   iii. Business centers
   iv. Offices
   v. Institutions
   c) Storage Accommodation: The storage accommodation in some ways involve
   accommodation that can be specially designed in form of: ware houses, where either
   manufactured goods or goods of harvest are stored until they are required to be used or
   done with sometime in the future. Another form of storage could be in form of shades
   for goods and materials that can thrive well with free air but which could be endangered
   by contact with moisture. Reservoirs and silos also form part of storage
   accommodation. Storage accommodation can be grouped as
   i. Warehouse
   ii. Shade
   iii. Reservoirs, silos and
   iv. Cool rooms.
   105 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   d) Recreation Accommodation: As the saying goes, all work and no play makes one dull
   and lazy. More to this, lack of recreation can led to accumulation of tension with its
   attendant negative consequence to health. Man needs to rest, recuperate when he departs
   from the work environment for a moment. Recreation helps to relieve tension and could
   be in form of:
   i. Sport facilities/concert hall
   ii. Stadium
   iii. Libraries
   iv. Art galleries
   v. Museum
   vi. Cinemas
   e) Spiritual Accommodation: Man when he realizes himself as being made of spirit, soul
   and body needs to foster his vertical relationships with his creator. This is affected when
   man is present in the spiritual accommodations. Churches and other places of worship
   come in this category.
   f) Facilities for Transport: An interesting aspect of our present civilization is the
   availability of vast road infrastructure, airports and seaports for effective movement of
   people and goods. This has enhanced commerce and industrial activities from the local
   level to national and international levels. These means of transportation requires special
   terminal building such as bus station, railway, stations, buildings at airport and seaports
   or harbors.
   Facilities for Transportation can be summarized as:
   i. Road network with bus stations
   ii. Railway network with railway stations,
   iii. Seaports with harbors and canals
   iv. Airport, with terminal buildings.
   Historical View
   Engineering has been as man’s service since the beginning of civilization / evolution.
   Human activity in the field of construction engineering goes for back into the past, when man
   observing nature around him began to imitate and improve it in order to create safer and better
   living conditions.
   Moreover, relatively early, he noticed that his engineering “work” apart from reliability,
   durability and functionality had to have elements harmony and reliability, durability and
   functionality had to have elements of harmony and beauty (Elattar, 2009). This calls for
   continuous innovation in the field of building system technology.
   Ancient Communities
   First of all, ancient communities had at their disposal natural materials such as stone and
   timber. In the course of time, they learned how to use clay to form bricks, which were first dried
   only in the sum and then baked. In the main civilization centres (the Middle East, the Near East,
   and the Mediterranean region) the hot climate and inconsiderate economy led, in a short time, to
   the elimination of timber as a building material. Stone and brick brittle materials dominated
   architecture in the region of European civilization for several centuries: from stone pyramids in
   106 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Egypt 3000 years B.C until the so called first industrial revolution in England (the turn of the 18th
   and 19th centuries). They were suitable building materials for erecting walls and columns but at
   the same time, due to their low tensile bending strength, they caused a lot of problems in
   horizontal elements. Therefore a valued arch that was popular in ancient Rome, semicircular in
   its primary form, was the pattern that was to be employed for elements or structures of larger
   span. The arch course of time become lighter and less massive (Elattar, 2009).
   Building technology is a dynamic profession, and as ideas emerge, new techniques will
   also be deviced especially in the way of doing things.
   Today, building system is no more what it used to be, we are running fast with the time. The idea
   of smart materials, smart buildings, innovative building technologies and green building
   construction are coming into the system pursing the global vision for building technology. What
   are they?
   Smart Material: Smart materials are materials that have one or more properties that can be
   significantly altered in a controlled fashion by external stimuli, such as stress, temperature,
   moisture, electric or magnetic field. There are a number of types of smart materials, some of
   which are already common.
   Among the various existing smart materials are: piezoelectric ceramics, electro active
   polymers, and shape memory alloys and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), which exhibit extraordinary
   mechanical properties. Those materials differ in the structural and electrical characteristics
   making them promising for developing unique and revolutionary smart composite materials.
   Smart Building
   Smart building LIC (a US-based engineering and design firm) offers this definition. “A
   smart building is the integration of building, technology, and energy systems. These systems
   may include building automation, life safety, telecommunications, user systems and facility
   management system. Smart buildings recognize and reflect the technological advancements and
   convergence of building system, the common elements of the systems and the additional
   functionality that integrated system provide.
   Smart buildings provide actionable information about a building or space within a
   building; owner or occupant manages the building or space”.
   Innovative Building Technologies and Practices
   Innovative Building Technologies and Practices save energy and money. Investing in
   energy efficient technologies and practices allows building owners, developer, and occupants to
   realize cost savings in homes and buildings that are more comfortable, productive and
   marketable. These technologies and the whole building approach will produce buildings that use
   less energy and reduce future maintenance cost.
   Green Building
   Green or environmentally friendly building construction is becoming a very popular
   topic in current culture. The possibilities of green building are heading newspapers, challenging
   engineers, and becoming lead issues in the society. According to Jeff Komblau, director of sales
   and marketing for Eagle Construction “we wanted to reach under the finishes of our homes to
   inject quality that is not visible but creates comfort and is seen in the saving created each month
   with a smaller carbon footprint”. (Childers, 2008). Even local businesses such as Eagle
   Construction are beginning to see the benefits of green building construction. Although, when
   most consumers look at green products, they see environmentally friendly product with a hefty
   price.
   107 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Most green engineered products are meant to consume less energy, saving the consumer
   money in the long run. This is a very important time to be conscious of energy consumption, due
   to global warming.
   Most Appropriate Method
   1) Solar energy is most definitely the greatest known form of energy producing their own
   energy from the sun. This technology has been around for quite a long time, but it is still
   growing in popularity, as well as quality in some areas (M.J. Sowick, Conversation,
   January 28, 2009). An unusual and expensive technology ten years ago is now a cheaper,
   more common energy alternative.
   2) The use of natural light is becoming very popular in modern large buildings. Buildings can
   have many skylights and windows to get natural light deep into the interior. The artificial
   light in the building could then dim or turn off when there is sufficient amount of natural
   light. This natural light was used in the California Academy of Science in San Francisco’s
   Golden Gate Park (Green Building Incorporate).
   Most other buildings are there that utlize natural light closely to home, windows and
   skylight, admit natural light.
   3) Green construction can be implemented through choice of building materials as well. It is
   also environmentally, economically, and energy efficient to use materials that are close to
   the building site, decreasing the amount of oil use as well as air pollution. It would actually
   be very green, economically beneficial, to renovate an existing building than build a
   whole new one. This would prevent the pollution of all new materials and save ecosystem
   that the building would be destroying.
   4) While most of these green engineering techniques give back to the environment by
   decreasing the amount of energy usage, same techniques can help the local habit more
   directly. Green roof are becoming more popular and effective. A green roof is one with a
   layer of soil and vegetation growing on top of it. It benefits the building as well as the habit
   in many ways.
   It helps the environment, in that it provides a habit for wildlife that were likely there
   before the building was built. The water runoff from the top of a green roof also drains cleaner
   than it was before it hit the roof. Green roofs also benefit the building, in that they are a great
   insulation blocking out the hot sum in the summer of keeping the heat from leaving the building
   in winter. (Green building incorporate). In 2005, sun Trust Bank in Richmond “converted the
   top of a four – story building on main street down town to an 11, 800 square foot “green
   roof”,convered with draught resistant plants that consume carbon dioxide and absorb storm
   water” (Springstone, 2009).
   While most attention of green building experts is put on making large building green,
   homes and smaller buildings can also use green methods of construction. Homes may not
   always finds it efficient to use same techniques as large building in order to be greener. But
   certainly simple techniques can still be useful such as natural highlighting or eco0friendly and
   energy saving light bulbs would help. There are also different way, such as a geothermal heating
   and cooling system. This type of system would use the earth’s temperature conditions to regulate
   the temperature in the building.
   Although the present day practices in green building construction re important, the real
   success lies with future. The future is what will transform the entire world into a place that is self
   – constructive, rather than destructive. Even more beneficial than new technologies arising is
   the improvement of existing technologies to make them greener, more user friendly, more cost
   efficient.
   108 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Conclusion
   Findings have touched the building and the impact of modern building system
   technology, the built environment, the historical view, the ancient communities, smart building
   materials introduced into the system, smart building, innovative building technologies and
   practices, as well as green building construction.
   It is logical to think, in the immediate future, urban growth and its infrastructure will
   continue to improve due to the impact of modern techniques of construction technology
   through the use of smart building materials and innovations. The number of construction works
   shall progressively improve; demanding an increasing durability of what is being built in order
   to minimize environmental impact.
   Green building construction and the methods are rapidly growing in both popularity and
   importance, because there are many businesses that are taking advantages of this technological
   change. There is no doubt that a change must come quickly to halt a disaster that is effecting our
   environment. People have to alter their lifestyles in order to reverse the damage that has been
   done, hence putting off action until tomorrow is not a good option. In addition to saving the
   environment, the growing intelligence of green engineering and building construction will help
   consumers save money and reduce their energy consumption.
   Recommendations
   The following recommendations were made:
   1) The NBTE and Federal Government should review the curriculum for students offering
   Building Trade in Technical and Vocational Education Department in Nigeria to reflect
   green training skills.
   2) The Federal Government of Nigeria should make effort to intensify apprenticeship
   training in all areas of trades in Vocational Education Training to incorporate green
   building.
   3) Training for specific green application is necessary.
   4) Green construction training programes: that can enable workers to gain the skills they
   need to find work in the green construction industry are needed.
   5) Green job apprenticeship programme should be offered in technical collages and
   polytechnics.
   6) Courses and development of new courses should be established that focused on green
   building at all levels.
   References
   (2008, September 24). About Labs21. Retrieved January 28, 2009, from Labs for the 21st
   Century Web site:http://www.labs21century.gov/about/index.htm.
   About Energy Star. Retrieved January 28, 2009, from Energy Star Web Site:
   http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=about.ab_index.
   Childers, D. (2008, December 28). Building Green. Richmond Times-Dispatch, p. F1 F3.
   Elattar, S.M.S. (2009). Towards a Global Vision for Building Technology Future. European
   Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450 – 216x Vol. 30 No3. Pp. 495 – 405.
   Eurololournals Publishing, Inc. 2009.
   Green Building Incorporate high-tech engineering. (Solution snapshot). “Motion System
   Design 50.7 (July, 2008). General Onefitl. Gala. Goochland High School. 6 Oct. 2008
   http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodld=IPS”
   Hartman, Thomas. “A Vision for Energy Performance: Integrating performance – monitoring
   initiatives to improve building sustainability. (Engineering Green Building).”
   109 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning Engineering 80.5 (May 2008): 9(2). General. Onelife.
   G a l e . G o o c h l a n d H i g h S c h o o l . 6 O c t . 2 0 0 8
   http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodid-IPS
   Heandriks Ch. H/F. Durable and sustainable construction Materials Aeneas. N1, 2000.
   Inpil Kanga, and others, introduction to carbon nanotube and nanofiber smart materials,
   Composites part B: Engineering, Volume 37, Issue 6, 2006, pages 382-394 JCOM 731”
   Iroegbu, O.I. (2003). Introduction to Block laying and concreting. Mikon Press, 27 Nike Road
   Abakpa, Enugu
   M.R.C. Doughtly, G.P. Geoffery and P. Hammond, Sustainability and the built environment at
   and beyond the city scale, building and Environment 39 (2004) (10), pp. 1223-1233.
   Mora Eduardo Peris, Life Cycle, Sustainability and the Transcendent quality of building
   materials, Building and Environment, Volume 42, Issue 3, March, 2007 Pages 1334.
   Springston, Rex (2009, January 25). Green makes good business sense. Richmo. Times-
   Dispatch, p. T8.
   110 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   THE ECONOMY OF LANGUAGE DESIGN (A MINIMALIST PERSPECTIVE)
   by
   HENRY OBURU ONYEDIBIA
   Abstract
   Following the appreciable inroads achieved in the 21st concerning the studies of human
   languages, many values have been found to be specifically of human monopoly as can be
   empirically observed in the notion of Merge, Move and language designs. One of the
   remarkable and yet unbeaten revolutions of human language studies is the Principles and
   Parameters notion of human grammar. It presented an unchallenged debunk of the superiority
   propaganda which beset language studies and appreciation. This paper attempted an inroad
   into the complexity of human language design. It realised that one aspect of this task involved
   the socio-cultural milieu; which influences specific language designs according to the
   environmental requirements of language creation. It considered the importance of the
   mechanics of language computation based on the Minimalist parlance. The paper also showed
   that the design of language is largely influenced by the syntactic requirements of the language
   environment and that economy constraints are conditions precedent in the procedure. It
   realised that wh-words must move leftward or rightward according to the lexical habitation and
   rules of the language. However, this paper exceptionally noticed that wh-words in Ogbah can
   move in either direction or remain insitu.
   Keywords: Computation, Move, Merge, Design, Economy.
   Theoretical framework
   The research content of this paper is based on the Minimalist Program (MP) of
   Chomsky (1995, 2004). The choice of this framework is motivated by the need to subject some
   of the research assumptions which the Program has accumulated to further inquiry; some of
   which appear to be unreviewed. Fraction of that review is attempted in this paper through the
   vent of comparative syntax involving English and the Ogbah language. The MP is said to be an
   extension of the Principals and Parameters (P&P) framework which centres on the universal
   and idiosyncratic paradigms of world languages. Some of the assumptions of the MP have been
   subjected to empirical tests through the application of the P&P. According to Muller (2016:114,
   85) “The Principles and Parameters model nevertheless remains interesting for cross-linguistic
   research”. He noted earlier that; “Investigating languages on their differences with regard to
   certain assumed parameters has proven to be very fruitful line of research in the last few decades
   and has resulted in an abundance of comparative cross-linguistic studies”.
   Literature Review:
   Language Design and Economy
   According to Al–Mutari (2014:41) “economy” is “understood in terms of general
   constraints on representation and the derivation of syntactic objects”. The concept of ‘economy’
   in the MP parlance is hinged on disallowing redundancy and costly moves; syntactic
   representations should be minimised to basics, while moves should adhere to subjacency
   conditions. Note the following examples presented in Chomsky (1995a:181 as quoted in Al-
   Mutari 2014:42):
   Henry Oburu Onyedibia, Department of English Education, Federal College of Education (Technical) Omoku,
   Rivers State
   111 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   a. Whom did you expect [to feed whom ]. 2
   b. Whom did you expect whom [to feed t ]. 2 2
   The target condition of every derivation in syntax is well-formedness. Example (a) above falls
   short of the condition, and is mitigated by ill-formedness. The wh-word in (b) moved to the
   specifier position of CP in the matrix crashes expectedly because it is a referent and not the
   referer – The dislocation of the object to subject site is disapproved. So, despite the
   inconvenience experienced in a long distance movement, the move will resultantly be invalid.
   The second wh-word would unalterably remain insitu (at base) in order to avoid
   degrammaticalisation of the derivation.
   It is my view that the notion “shortest move” as it concerns two wh-words in the syntax
   is not only a device to curtail syntactic costliness, but an impossibility that would mitigate
   grammaticality. The first wh-word in the syntax is the only one that can be moved leftward to
   the CP position. I think that generically, the short move notion is a consequence of what I chose
   to call directional condition of movement. This notion portends that every lexical item in the
   syntax occupies a pre-determined locus in the computation, and its movement or displacement
   is either leftward or rightward. A noun (Pron.) may occupy mainly two posts in the syntax:
   subject or object positions of a sentence. Therefore, the noun functioning as a nominal tends to
   be easily moved leftward, while the other is easily driven rightward.
   Beginning Language Design (The psycho-socio perspective)
   A missing connection in the design of human language, unexamined or unportrayed
   under the minimalist reach, is the psycho-socio -culture perspective. I hold the view that it is not
   fully true that the computational system begins with the selection of atoms at the lexicon.
   Language computation and venture into the lexicon is pre-determined by the psycho-sociocultural
   world view of the speaker-hearer. This simply connotes that “Numeration” must
   adhere to the social factors, feelings and reactions in a given language society. It is strict and
   condition precedent in language design. In the sense of minimalism, these are based on
   selective parameters and are universally strict.
   Let us test this proposition by applying the following illustration. If an English speaker
   intends to address or greet the senior members of his language environment (community), his
   select projection would drive first to select the psycho-socio-cultural conditions reminiscent of
   language use in his society. When this is met, it diverges to the lexicon to select the suitable
   items (lexical, inflections etc) that would convey the intended sensibilities of the speakerhearer
   of the language. Without first undertaking and fulfilling these highly abstract conditions,
   the LF output would crash; meaning that the language may be disapproved, unreasonable or
   linguistically unacceptable. Consider that in Yoruba language, “kpele” (“well done”) may be
   used for greeting or consolation.
   The same may not apply for the English and Ogbah language speaker/hearer. It is
   unwelcomed to use the lexical “Well” for consolation or sadness. It is social and culturally
   abhorred, and could evoke feelings of mockery, insensitivity etc. Therefore, globally, the
   speaker of a language must satisfy the psycho-socio-cultural conditions before selecting the
   appropriate lexical from the lexicon inventory. In this sense I propose an extended a varieted
   schema from that postulated by Chomsky in the MP. It will now be that instead of selecting
   straight from the lexicon, the speaker-hearer perception is first directed to the details of his
   language environment or demands. He then selects from the lexicon the atoms (“Numeration”)
   that would match or safely convey his conceptual intention; without which the derivation
   would crash. It should be noted that the interpretability of an output does not only depend on
   grammaticality of the formation, but more on the sensibility such formation makes to the
   language community.
   112 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   The Computation System
   L is said to have generated full interpretation if it fulfills the interface conditions of (π λ)
   being phonetic form and logical form representations of the L as assumed by the MP.
   Interpretability is a condition precedent for the retainment of a derivation of the computed set of
   L. This is taken to be convergences; meaning that where a derivation is unable to “converge” at
   one of the interface sets and at both, such derivation or computation is deemed “crashed”–This
   meaning, perhaps, ungrammaticality or lack of interpretability in fullness.
   Note that, π and λ must be compatible” and relating to each other in the compository
   outlook of the syntax. The C then streams some “lexical choices” of “A” into the components; HL
   indicating the frequency of occurrence of each item mapped to π and λ, and their linguistic
   identities. At this point, alignment and realignment of the products of Numeration by
   concatenation is applied. This economy operation is named Merge and Move; responsible for
   bridging the syntactic formulations in phrase structure relation format. In the words of Zwart
   (1998:215): “The derivation is restricted by general conditions of economy, favouring local
   relations and simple structures and prohibiting superfluous steps or superfluous symbols”. This
   considerately represents the basic hallmarks of the Minimalist Program; holding in prominence
   the notions in the computational dispensation; the concatenate and alignment forces; which are
   strictly guided by flavours of economy of restrictions and elimination.
   Merge and Move
   The Minimalist Program dispenses with the Phrase Structure Grammar (PSG);
   regarding it as uneconomical and intricate. The procedure encourages a process which in
   Minimalist term is called “Merge”. This is simply a process of joinery; in which particulars
   from the lexicon are made available by “Select”; a kind of choosing act for further design
   action (Wikipedia, June 12, 2018). Reacting to the pre-minimalism regime of phrase structure
   rules and movement (Transformation) Chomsky (2004:157) noted thus:
   The idea that we assumed then – that there are two
   different kinds of operations, one which forms phrase
   structures and one which carries out movement – is
   probably incorrect. If this is correct, there’s only one
   operation, Merge…. If some configuration X has been
   constructed, the next step of computation can extend it
   by Merging Y to it, and Y can either be something
   outside of X (External merge) or within X (internal
   merge).
   Citko (2011:6) noted the Merge is an exceptional attribute of human language and one
   of the language features of communication which is uniquely assigned to no other “animal”, but
   man. The ‘movement’ (Transformation) of entities is within the cycle of the result of an
   external merge. In the minimalist parlance, the economy of this operation is harnessed in the
   simplicity of the lexicals which are already formed onset from the lexicon. That is to say
   that the syntactic components have already acquired or are imbued with the features of:
   AGREE, CASE, INFL etc.
   In the minimalist regime, the automation of lexical atoms is wholesomely generated.
   The view is supported by the continuality of language dispensation in languages which
   follow the English structure derivational rules, as well as those in the Ogbah language
   fellowship. The question would then be; when do the degrees of Case, Tense and Agree apply in
   the derivation? Ogbah makes doable swing when it comes to inflection, per tense and case.
   This information is available specifically to the competent speaker of the language, and the FL
   113 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   is akin to this claim. Parametrically, numeration would then commence by selecting all the
   features which the language technology requires. The process is a stream forth process per the
   FL (except for ‘crash’). Every morpheme is paired or inserted as required by the constraints of
   the grammar of the language. In which case, Ogbah would then not require V as a mandatory
   part of every grammatical construct – meaning that the Numeration for such construct will
   exclude V. But, for the English language, this trend in the language design will be completely
   non-existence in the FL of a speaker of the language. Chomsky (1981, 1982,1986), Koopman
   (1983); Lasmik and Uriegereka (1988), cited in Ndimele (1992:16), confirmed the mandatory
   inclusion of V (Inf.) in every English language constructions, but not for every Echie sentence.
   The certification cannot as well be granted in all languages.
   Onyedibia (2009) corroborated that: “In Ogbah…verb and tense are not obligatory facts
   in the design of all grammar in Ogbah”. This is because some “clauses (sentences) do not need
   verb or tense to achieve agreement” as evidenced in the following Ogbah syntactic
   constructions:
   a. Eke mra nma makuba oka b. Didi kiye mra nma nwokno
   Eke clit good very well father our clit good male
   “Eke is quite handsome”. “My father is a very good man”.
   The language features of a phrase are marched to their hosts before manifestation at the
   LF interface. This marched bunching saves the double traffic of movable lexical appendages
   such as inflection fixtures, case checking etc. Let us adopt Carrie’s (2007) claim in regard of the
   DP movement:
   Case serves as our motivation for DP movement. You can
   think of case as being like drivers license to surface in (case)
   in specific positions. If it isn’t in one of these positions, it
   must move to get case. A DP without case can’t drive.
   And Benjamin (2002:1; following Chomsky) noted as follows:
   He develops a theory of feature checking where licensing is
   carried out by movement of a element possessing certain
   feature to a head that has a matching feature, this movement
   sets up a configuration where the features are checked,
   leading to syntactic licensing.
   To illustrate V movement cases, supposes T has a V feature that must be checked against
   verb; and V has a T feature that must be checked against T. This will require V to rise to T where
   the two can check their features. We can further illustrate this claim using schema below:
   Nature of Merge
   Chomsky notices the projection redundancies in the X-Bar format, as it was with the
   “Flat structure” design which the former modified. He proposes a simplification which would
   require only ‘head’ and ‘complement’ to be unified by merger of the two factors. In the PSG
   format of phrasal realisation, the formation was by top-down process, but in the Merge
   dispensation, Chomsky chooses the Bottom-up process. According to Schmidt (2012:557):
   “…top-down processing makes use of ‘higher level’, non-sensory information to predict or
   interprete ‘lower level’ information that is present in the data. The other way, bottom-up
   processing, makes use of the information present in the input to achieve “higher level meaning”.
   114 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   According to Fukui (2012:8) Merge is not an expensive model of derivation; being that it is not
   motivated by any trigger; not subjected to the notion of Last Resort and “…that its application is
   at par with other operations in a grammar; in that it should be triggered by some kind of feature
   checking (Selection and other requirement). …there is no superfluous step in a derivation and
   every operation has the reason for it to apply”.
   It means that the readiness of the syntax from onset makes it traffic free from the
   encumbrances of inflection, Case and Agreement pursuits in derivation. Following this
   economicality, cost is reduced to the barest minimum. Not ‘triggered’ by anything implies that
   the motivators of movement in the derivation have been curtailed to the extent that the only
   movements that can be permitted in the course are those that are essentially bound to be
   triggered, and which must be strictly accounted for in the language design.
   Types of Merge
   a. External Merge: Merges two separate entities a, b, y (a + b +y).
   b. Internal merge: Merges two entities; both are sisters: a+B+y (a+y+b)
   c. Parallel merge: Combines both merge processes as follows
   Figure 1a. Merge α and y, project α (b). Merge β & y; project β.
   Parallel Merge is based on the basic assumptions:
   a. that the construction is driven by the same intuitive motivation – e.g one element is “shared
   between Z modes”; according to Minimalist assumption:
   b. Maintains multiple locus (positions) in the tree – i.e mother–daughter relationship (”multidoinance”).
   Williams (1978, in Citko 2011) noted “Conjuncts in a co-ordinate structure”
   as maintaining “Parallel factors”; while Goodall (1983, 1987) achieved “multidominance”
   from a union of reduced phrase markers (PM). Phrase markers bearing ‘a,
   b, c’ and ‘e, d, e’ can be collapsed or merged “with C as a shared mode e.g.
   115 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Note the following examples in Ogbah:
   a. Je ulo ka Mary nodi b. Mary nodi (ka) mu je ulo c. Kamu nodi, Mary je ulo
   a. V and N; project V b. N project (N) ka mu nodi, Mary je ulo.
   (Symmetric Merge)
   Here the phrase markers (PM) are merged internally and later merged externally;
   both shared c (ka) which serves as a co-ordinate.
   According to Ambridge (2004:27-29), in the minimalist dispense as against the “older
   Chomskyan analyses” the verb is not subject to the usual stop and pick process of ensuring
   ‘TNS’ and ‘AGR’ along the way as it travels into the substantive head location. The verbs are
   ready made prior to pre-release; as all the necessary inflectional features are appropriately
   imbued by the verb at base. According to Razaghi, Rahavard & Sadighi (2015:2), the ultimate
   aims of Chomsky in the MP is to achieve an encompassing “principles of economy”. This
   objective targets three issues in the MP – “Economy”, “Simplicity” and “uniformity”. These
   would help to impede unnecessary derivational operations – Short movements are less costly
   than longer ones; besides, movements must comply with the “Minimal Link Conditions”
   (MLC), which disallows long distance movements in derivation.
   Conclusion
   The MP milieu has unveiled many complexities relating to syntactic derivation.
   Language design should follow a set of principles which are determined by the economy of
   variegated syntactic imputations; considerate of Merge, Move and the frugalities necessary for
   avoidance of the inclusion of un-necessities in the design of a language. The minimalist
   “Bottom-up” process of derivation towers over the “Top-down” process because of its
   inclusiveness. The process of Merge and Move are largely determined by the parameters
   which languages hold against one another; not as a matter of superiority but one of
   individuality. This parametric requirement also co-ordinates the economy drive inherent in the
   Minimalist vogue. This evokes derivational simplicity, frugality and congruousness.
   References
   Ambridge, B. (2004). Experimental investigation of the formation and restrictions of abstract
   grammatical constructions in young children. University of Manchester faculty of
   science and engineering. Ph. D Dissertation
   Al-Mutari, F. R. (2014). The minimalist program: the nature of plausibility of Chomsky’s
   biolinguistics. Cambridge University Press.
   Benjamin, Bruening. (2002).
   Citko, B. (2011). Symmetry in syntax – merge, Move and Label. Cambridge University Press.
   Carnie, A. (2007). Syntax, a generative introduction (2nd edn). Blackwell.
   116 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Chomsky, N. (2004). The Generative enterprise revisited. Mouton de Gruyter.
   Fukui, N. (2012). “Merge and Bare Phase Structure”. In Boeckx, C. (ed). Oxford handbook of
   linguistic minimalism. Oxford University Press.
   MÜller, S. (2016). Grammatical theory (from transformational grammar to constraint based
   approaches). Language Science Press.
   Onyedibia, H. O. (2009). A contrastive analyses of the syntax and morphology of English and
   Ogbah. Unpublished Master degree thesis – Imo State University,
   Ozo-Mekuri, N. (1992). Parameters of universal grammar (A government binding approach).
   African Educational Services
   Razaghi, M,, Rhahavard, S and Sadighi, F. (2015). “Economy, simplicity and uniformity in
   minimalist syntax” .In International journal on studies in English language &
   literature (IJSELL). 3/I (1-6).
   Richard, J. C & Schmidt, R. (2012). Dictionary of language, teaching and applied linguistics
   (3rd edn.). Pearson Education. Ltd.
   Wikipedia, June 12, 2018).
   Zwart, J. N. (1998). “Minimalist program”. In linguistics 34. Cambidge University Press. 213-
   226.
   117 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING TEACHERS’ COMMITMENT TO DUTIES IN
   PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ORASHI REGION OF RIVER STATE.
   by
   WOKO, OSIMA FRED
   Abstract
   Teachers’ commitment to duties is pivotal to the attainment of educational goals. This
   study therefore empirically investigated strategies for improving teachers’ commitment to
   duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State. Three research objectives,
   three research questions and three null hypotheses were formulated a guide to the study. The
   study adopted a descriptive correlational research design since it sought to describe
   relationship among variables. The population of study comprised of 3,507 teachers from public
   secondary schools in the four local government areas of Orashi Region of Rivers State. While
   the sample size of 346 was derived using the Krejcie and Morgan formula for sample
   determination. A self-designed research instrument titled Strategies for Improving Teachers’
   Commitment Questionnaire (SITCQ) was used to gather data for this research work. The
   instruments were validated by two experts while the reliability coefficient of the subscale of the
   SITCQ are, reward system subscale, job security, participation in decision making and teacher
   job commitment were calculated to be 0.77, 0.85, 0.81 and 0.73 respectively. Mean and
   standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while simple linear regression
   was used to test the null hypotheses. The findings of the study reveal that all three variables
   tested: reward system (r=0.892); job security(r=0.828) and participation in decision making
   (r=0.738) significantly improves teachers’ job commitment in public secondary schools in
   Orashi region of Rivers state. Premised on these findings, it was recommended that
   educational administrators should ensure that reward system, job security are provided for and
   teachers be allowed to participate in the decision making of the school, since the study reveals
   that they improve teachers’ job commitment.
   Keywords: Teachers’ commitment, reward system, job security, participation in decision
   making.
   Introduction
   Education is a catalyst for societal and individual change. It is an imperative tool for
   reforms because it develops and cultivates the capacity of human elements in a terrain. Through
   education the skills and potentials of the learner is unlocked. Societal norms, values along with
   skill, information, attitude, awareness, abilities and competence are transferred to learners
   through education. The overall accomplishment of an educational institution is determined by
   the teachers’ commitment which is directly connected to the level of motivation they have
   within the institution. Teachers commitment is the key element that describes how and why
   teachers care about the school, their students learning and wellbeing, they their emotions in their
   work and their students. Commitment influences teachers’ effort to work and perform
   obligatory duties.
   Coladarci (2002) opined that commitment describes the teachers’ mental attachment to
   Woko, Osima Fred, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria.
   118 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   the school business. Teachers that are highly committed to their duties work harder and are
   psychologically and sensitively involved with matters that have to do with their schools, they
   make more effort to carry out the goals of teaching and show promptness when assigned to
   duties. Commitment to duty in education apparently means staff ability to identify with the
   school, synchronize with the school, and being loyal to school duties and responsibilities.
   Successful teachers are highly committed to their school duties and profession in general.
   Crosswell and Elliot (2004) advanced that teachers’ commitment to duties involve the school,
   students, career continuity, professional knowledge development, and the teaching profession in
   general. Teacher commitment is greatly connected to teachers’ effectiveness which has a
   significant influence on students’ and school performance. The students are the most important
   elements and the rate at which the teachers are passionately involved in class activities with the
   students could tell on the student’s academic life as well as social life (Celep, 2001). A committed
   teacher always makes every effort to advance students’ professional competence by providing
   them a quality learning environment. Singh and Billinnsgley (2008) stressed that low level of
   teachers’ commitment reduces students’ achievement.
   The degree to which teachers’ are committed to their duties the organization could
   influence students’ outcomes, efficiency of teaching and learning operations, dropout rates,
   school output and students performance. As the vanguard of the educational programmes in the
   secondary schools, their relationship with the school in which they work is multifaceted.
   Teachers are specialist in their fields who have undergone some expert/scholastic training,
   which equips them for their place in the society just like the doctors, engineers and other
   professionals. The school is the best place where learners can acquire knowledge from
   instructors. Dilapidated schools have the capacity to disrupt the flow of teaching. Lack of
   sufficient staff, lack of school plants such as staff room, classrooms, laboratory, toilets and
   insufficient power supply could contribute to the decline in teachers’ commitment. Undeniably,
   the condition of education in Nigeria is below prospect and the height of our teachers’
   commitment in the nation is a reflection of their benefits and remuneration packages that is not
   encouraging both in the public and private schools, where teachers may be short paid and over
   utilized.
   Educational managers and school administrators are responsible for formulation of
   strategies that will increase teachers’ commitment. Those at the top hierarchy ought to create
   atmospheres and conditions that would make teachers feel the passion for the teaching job. This
   way teacher will be motivated and thus remain committed to their duties.
   Statement of the Problem
   The progress of every educational system is reliant on how committed teachers are to
   their duties. However, despite the fact that teachers’ commitment determines a lot in the goal
   attainment of every formal educational system. There seems to be a low level of commitment by
   teachers in public school toward their students, to teaching, to the school and to the teaching
   profession. The resultant effect of these is that teachers will not give in their best toward
   achievement of school goals. They are often absence to duty, even when they are present they
   skip classroom and other school activities. The end point is that students suffer for the low
   commitment of teachers resulting to poor academic performance. Thus, this study attempts to
   examine strategies for improving teachers’ commitment in public secondary schools in Orashi
   Region of Rivers state.
   Aims and Objectives of the Study
   The aim of the study is to examine the strategies for improving teachers’ commitment to
   duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State. Specifically, the study seeks
   119 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   to:
   I. Establish the effect of reward system on the improvement of teachers’ job
   commitment to duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
   ii. Establish the effect of job security on the improvement of teachers’ job commitment to
   duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
   iii. Examine the effect of participation in decision making on the improvement of teachers’
   job commitment to duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
   Research Questions
   The following research questions guided the study.
   i. To what ex extent does reward system improves teachers’ job commitment to duties in
   public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State?
   ii. To what extent does job security improves teachers’ job commitment to duties in public
   secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State?
   ii. To what extent does participation in decision making improves teachers’ job
   commitment to duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers
   State?
   Hypotheses
   The following null hypotheses was tested at 0.05 level of significance
   Ho Reward system does not significantly improve teachers’ job commitment to duties in 1
   public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
   HO Job security does not significantly improve teachers’ job commitment to duties in public 2
   secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
   HO Participation in decision making does not significantly improve teachers’ job 3
   commitment to duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
   Conceptual Clarifications
   Teacher Commitment
   In simple term, teacher’s commitment refers to teacher’s perception of and identification with
   the organization in which he or she belongs (Werang & Pure, 2018). Teacher commitment is the
   emotional bond between the teacher and the school. Ibrahim and Iqbal (2015) and Thien, Razak,
   and Ramayah (2014) advanced four dimensions of teachers’ commitment. The dimensions are
   commitment to students, commitment to teaching, commitment to school, and commitment to
   profession.
   Teacher Commitment to Students: This is the teacher identifying with the needs of the
   students to ensure their overall growth and development. Kushman as cited in Thien, et al.
   (2014) posited that commitment to students is grounded in the ideas of teachers’ high efficacy
   and expectations. According to him, commitment to students is not only focused on students but
   also includes teaching and student achievement mission of schools. Teachers who are
   committed to their students will be positively engaged with their students, work harder to make
   classroom activities more meaningful, and introduce new ways of learning, whereas, low levels
   of commitment to students might affect student achievement, less sympathy toward students,
   and lower tolerance for frustration in the classroom.
   Teacher Commitment to Teaching: Is the degree to which a teacher wants to be engaged
   in his or her teaching work psychologically. It is conceptualized as teachers’ willingness to be
   engaged in teaching work. Thien, et al. (2014) insisted that a teacher with strong work
   commitment would have more positive feelings toward occupation than those with weak work
   120 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   commitment. It is reflected through teachers’ willingness to exert their effort in providing
   effective teaching, to show greater enthusiasm in teaching the subject matter, and willingness to
   devote extra time to students.
   Teacher Commitment to Profession: Professional commitment is a worker’s attitude
   towards his or her profession or vocation. Somech and Bogler (2002) asserted that teacher
   commitment to profession involves an affective attachment to the profession or occupation,
   which is associated with the personal identification and satisfaction as a teacher. Teacher
   commitment to profession is important because it enables an individual to develop the needed
   skills and relationships to have a successful career regardless of the organization within which
   he or she is employed.
   Teacher Commitment to School: Teacher commitment to school is conceptualized as
   teachers’ belief and acceptance of the goals and values of the school, teachers’ efforts for
   actualization of these goals and values, and the teachers’ strong desires to keep up membership
   in the school Thien, et. al. (2014). Teachers who are highly committed to their school are
   expected to engage in school activities to achieve the school goals, exert considerable effort
   beyond minimal expectations, and remain working within the organization. Individuals might
   choose to redirect their emotional energies toward the profession to which they belong.
   Teachers’ Reward System
   Reward is the compensation which an employee receives from an organization in
   exchange for the service offered by the employee or as the return for work done (Lin, 2007).
   Reward system according to Armstrong (2007) consists of an organization’s integrated policies,
   processes and practices for rewarding its employees in accordance with their contribution, skill
   and competence and their markets worth. The reward system is developed within the frame
   work of the organization’s reward philosophy, strategies and policies and contains arrangements
   in the form of processes, practices, structures and procedures which will provide and maintain
   appropriate types and levels of pay, benefits and other forms of reward.
   Teachers reward can be classified as intrinsic or extrinsic; financial and non-financial
   reward etc. Intrinsic reward systems are those that are inherent in the job and which the
   individual enjoys as a result of successfully completing the task or attaining his goals. On the
   other hand extrinsic reward comes from external and it is tangible in order to appreciate the task
   performed by employee. Extrinsic rewards are external to the task of the job, including pay,
   work condition, fringe benefits, security, and promotion, contract of service, salary, incentives,
   bonuses, payments and job security the work environment and conditions of work
   (Badrinarayan & Tilekar, 2011). Financial reward may mean the amounts paid to employees,
   either in the form of a lump sum or in the form of monthly payments or in any other form which
   serves as income to an employee. Example of financial rewards are salary and wages, financial
   bonus, share, stocks, bond and treasure bills for workers etc. While non-financial rewards are
   reward measures that have nothing to with physical cash and can hardly be quantify in monetary
   value. They include praise and recognition, letter of recommendation, fair promotion
   opportunity, training and career development etc.
   The reward that employees mostly receive from their organization is pay, allowances,
   recognition and promotions etc. These rewards are used to encourage the employees to perform
   their tasks at full potential. It is important that the purpose of every reward and incentive must be
   clear to the teachers and that it should be given promptly and in timely manners. If possible,
   teachers should be given the chance to select the reward for themselves.
   Teachers’ Job Security
   Job security is defined as the assurance in an employee’s job continuity due to the general
   121 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   economic conditions in the country (James, 2012). It is the assurance from the company or
   organization that their employees will remain with them for a reasonable period of time without
   being wrongly dismissed (Adebayo & Lucky, 2012). These definitions point to the fact that job
   security is protection against job loss and that is the probability of an employee to keep his/her
   job. The higher the probability of keeping employment, the higher the job security. Therefore,
   teacher job security is the assurance that a teacher cannot be sanctioned, demoted or sacked
   without following legally defined due process.
   A study by KPMG (2010) on job security found that more than 75% of participants
   considered job security their top priority when searching for a job as a result of the uncertain
   economic environment. While the result also showed that 67% of the participants were likely to
   work in a public or non-profit organization than a corporate business due to the recession.
   Generally in Nigeria, there is low job security except for government jobs. For the most part of it,
   there seems to be a perceived high job security among teachers in government schools. Once a
   government school teacher receives a letter of confirmation of appointment, the government
   teacher gets the assurance that he/she cannot be arbitrarily dismissed from their job, except for
   voluntary retirement/resignation. The employment status of the teacher in most case spans a
   period of 30 to 35 years or when the teacher gets to 60 or 65 years of age.
   Abdullah and Ramay (2012) are of the opinion that Job security is an imperative factor in
   teachers’ commitment. The teachers’ job security in the educational sector is ensured after the
   appointment of the teacher is confirmed. Thus, the teacher is accorded his/her tenure of service
   status. This tenure of service secures the teacher job. Therefore it would be improper and
   unconstitutional to dismiss the teacher from the job without investigation, fair hearing and legal
   examination. Over the years, researchers have shown that job security encourages employees’
   commitment to duties in organizations (Yousaf &Waheed, 2015). One of the highest expectations
   of any employee from his place of work is the security of their job (Abdullah & Ramay, 2012).
   Therefore employees in any organization will be more committed to their job if they feel secured
   where they work. Job security therefore promotes commitment as it also goes a long way to create
   an emotional and mental balance which is required for employees to development commitment in
   their place of work.
   Participation in Decision Making
   Employee Participation in Decision Making (EPDM) in the opinion of Northouse (2004),
   is rooted in the ”theory Y” perspective of management. He therefore suggested that employees are
   fundamentally interested in performing well at work and will be more attached and committed to
   a work organization if their seniors value their contributions in making decisions that affect the
   nature of work. Cotton, Vollrath, Froggatt, Lengnick-Hall, and Jennings as cited in Wainaina,
   Iravo & Waititu (2014) categorized employee participation in decision making as: direct
   employee participation with management in making work-related decisions; consultative
   participation where employee opinions are considered by managers in making decisions;
   employee partial ownership of the organization; and representative participation through a union
   or staff association.
   Participation in decision making is of prime importance for effective school
   management. But teachers, in most cases, have been excluded in the process of decision making.
   This is revealed by Muindi, (2011) who conducted a research in Kenya and came up with findings
   that decision-making on school staffing, curriculum and resource allocation had been made by
   school principals or selected members of administrative managerial teams. The study also
   established that in most cases, teachers were usually excluded by school administrators in the
   process of decision-making. Amold and Feldman as cited in Keung (2008) proposed three level
   of categorization of decision participation for teachers: the individual level, the group level and
   the organizational level. The individual level includes issues closely relating to the individual
   122 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   teacher’s performance within classrooms such as choice of teaching materials, teaching
   schedule and student assessment. The group level includes issues relating to the functioning of
   groups such as subject panels and co-curricular activity groups. Included in the organizational
   level are issues that concern the whole school level matters such as school goals, school budget,
   admission policy, personnel management and development planning.
   Empirical Review
   An empirical study carried out by Olurotimi, Asad and Abdulraul (2015) titled
   Motivational Factors and Teachers Commitment in Public Secondary Schools in Mbale
   Municipality in Uganda. The study employed Cross-sectional survey design. The sampling
   technique used to select was simple random sampling technique. The data collected was
   analyzed using frequency and percentages, Pearson correlation coefficient (bivariate statistics)
   and regression analysis. The study found a positive and significant influence of promotion on
   teacher’s commitment with a (Sig=0.000), findings showed reward system and teachers
   commitment were statistically significant at (Sig=0.000) and that there was a low significant
   relationship between training and development and teachers commitment with a (sig=0.002).
   Mackenzie and Nwafor (2019) in a recent study investigated the in-service training and
   job security as determinants of teachers’ commitment in public senior secondary schools in Abia
   State. There were two research questions and two hypotheses which guided the study.
   Correlation design was used for the study.
   The population of the study was 550 vice principals in 275 public senior secondary
   schools in Abia State out of which 275 vice- principals in 138 public senior secondary schools
   were sampled for the study using proportionate stratified random sampling technique. Two
   questionnaires were used for collection of data and they included a 16 item questionnaire titled
   ‘In-service Training and Job Security Questionnaire’ (ITJSQ) as well as a 15 item questionnaire
   titled ‘Teachers’ Job Commitment Questionnaire’ (TJCQ). The questionnaires were face and
   content validated by two experts in the Department of Psychology, Guidance and Counselling,
   University of Port Harcourt. Cronbach alpha was used to estimate the reliability of the
   questionnaire with co-efficients of 0.75 and 0.74 for the sub-sections of ITJSQ and 0.86 for
   TJCQ. Simple regression was used to answer the research questions while t-test associated with
   simple regression was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 alpha level. The findings of the study
   showed a moderate positive relationship of r=0.59 between in-service training and teachers job
   commitment, as well as high positive relationship of r=0.68 between job security and teachers
   job commitment in these schools.
   Again, a study by Ngussa and Gabriel (2017) that sought to investigate the participation
   in decision making and teachers’ commitment among secondary schools teachers in Arusha
   Municipality, Tanzania. It employed descriptive comparative design. A total of 159 teachers
   filled the questionnaires whose reliability was established through pilot study before actual data
   collection. The study concluded that there is significant relationship between participation in
   decision-making and teachers’ commitment. Teachers are committed to the success of their
   schools and they are emotionally attached to their career. However, teachers’ commitment and
   participation in decision-making was higher in private schools than in public schools. Based on
   findings, it is recommended that school authorities should maximize participation in decision
   making in order to raise teachers’ commitment.
   Wainaina, et. al. (2014) investigated the effect of employee participation in decision
   making on academic staffs’ organizational commitment in the private and public universities in
   Kenya. This survey study was a form of a cross-section study where descriptive research design
   was used. The study targeted all the academic staff in the public and private universities in
   Kenya. Stratified sampling was used where sixteen universities were selected followed by
   simple random sampling to select both representative department and staff from the selected
   123 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   departments. Data for the study was collected by administering a 25-item questionnaire to a
   sample of 347 academic. A total of 282 questionnaires were returned and analysis was done
   with the help of SPSS. To test the hypothesis for the study t-test and F-test were used.
   Correlation and regression analysis were also done. The study found that employee
   participation in decision making significantly influence university academic staffs’
   organizational commitment in Kenya.
   Efanga and Akpan (2014) studied the role of principal in the dispensation of reward in
   secondary schools system in Nigeria. It is the contention of the study, that reward is one of the
   ways in which principal exercise his authority on the teacher. In rewarding to teachers in
   secondary schools in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria. Three null hypotheses were formulated to
   guide the study. A sample size of 451 participants was drawn using stratified random sampling
   technique. Two researcher’s made instruments were used for data collection. The three null
   hypotheses tested at .05 alpha level using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Findings arising from
   hypotheses testing indicates that principal dispensation of reward to teachers significantly
   influence teachers commitment to work.
   Akum and Oreva (2015) carried out a research on administrative variables and teachers
   job commitment in public secondary schools in Rivers, Bayelsa and Akwa Ibom States of
   Nigeria. Three research questions were answered and three null hypotheses were tested at 0.05
   level of significant. The study utilized ex-post facto design. The population of the study was
   20,040 principals and teachers in public secondary schools in Rivers, Bayelsa and Akwa Ibom
   States. The instrument was validated and found reliable. Multiple Regression Statistics Model
   was used to answer the three research questions and tested the three null hypotheses at 0.05
   levels of confidence. Findings showed that there was significant relationship between
   administrative variables such as teachers’ promotion, job security, and training and
   development and teachers’ job commitment in public secondary schools in Rivers, Bayelsa and
   Akwa Ibom States. It was concluded that administrative variables such as teachers’ promotion
   and job security positively relate with teachers’ job commitment public secondary schools in
   Rivers, Bayelsa and Akwa Ibom States as their mean ratings were high. The administrative
   variables: training and development do not significantly relate with teachers’ job commitment
   in public secondary schools in Rivers, Bayelsa and Akwa Ibom States.
   Methodology
   This study adopted a descriptive correlational study design as the study intended to
   examine the relationship between two variables. Using the Krejcie and Morgan formula for
   sample determination, 346 teachers was the sample size derived from the target population of
   3,507 teachers from selected public secondary schools in the four local government areas that
   made up Orashi Region of Rivers State. The simple random sampling method was used to select
   346 teachers from the total population. A self-designed research instrument titled Strategies for
   Improving Teachers’ Commitment Questionnaire (SITCQ) was used to gather data for this
   research work. The questionnaire was divided into four clusters. Each cluster had five statement
   items which was responded to using the appropriate responses ranging from Very High Extent
   =VHE (4), High Extent = HE (3), Low Extent=LE (2), Very Low Extent=VLE (1). Respondents
   were expected to choose one option for each statement item. The researcher adopted the facial
   and content validity methods to validate the research instrument using two experts while the
   reliability coefficient of the reward system subscale, job security, participation in decision
   making and teacher job commitment were calculated to be 0.77, 0.85, 0.81 and 0.73
   respectively. mean scores and standard deviations were used to analyze the research questions
   while simple linear regression was used to analyze the null hypotheses all with the aid of the
   statistical package for social sciences (SPSS), computer software (version 21).
   124 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Results and Discussion
   Research Question 1: To what extent does reward system improve teachers’ job commitment
   to duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State?
   Table 1. Degree of extent on how reward system improves teachers’ job commitment.
   The data analyzed in Table 1 shows that all items 1-5 reported an average mean score of 3.37
   which shows that the majority of the respondents agree that to a high extent reward system
   improves teachers’ job commitment to duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region
   of Rivers State.
   Research Question 2: To what extent does job security improve teachers’ job commitment to
   duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State?
   Table 2 degree of extent on how job security improves teacher job commitment.
   The data analyzed in Table 2 shows that all items 6-10 indicated that the majority of the
   respondents agree that to a high extent job security improves teachers’ job commitment to
   SN X SD Decision
   1 My salary is good, and it encourages me to involve in
   the activities of the school. 3.32 .71 High Extent
   2 The prospect of salary increment makes me committed
   to the teaching profession. 3.34 .67 High Extent
   3 The fringe financial benefit that I get occasionally makes
   me committed to my teaching job. 3.34 .65 High Extent
   4 The school head provides non financial reward such as
   recognition, letter of promotion etc. 3.33 .70 High Extent
   5 My reward comes as at when due hence I identify with
   the values, mission and goals of the school. 3.51 .65 High Extent
   Average Mean 3.37 High Extent
   SN X SD Decision
   6 The knowledge that as a teacher, you cannot be
   dismissed from the job without due process encourages
   me to be committed to the school activities.
   3.32 .71 High Extent
   7 The job security gives teachers a sense of safety which
   makes them to identify with the mandate of the school. 3.30 .70 High Extent
   8 Teachers are sure of keeping their job as long as they
   wish; this encourages them to be committed to the
   activities of the school.
   3.26 .67 High Extent
   9 Teachers feel committed when they realize that not
   even economic conditions can deprive them of their job 3.31 .70 High Extent
   10 Teaching can be made a career and that encourages
   teachers to be deeply involved with the profession. 3.50 .64 High Extent
   Average Mean Score 3.34 High Extent
   125 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State with an average mean
   of 3.34.
   Research Question 3: To what extent does participation in decision making improve teachers’
   job commitment to duties in private secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State?
   Table 3. Degree of extent on how participation in decision making improves teachers’ job
   commitment.
   The data analyzed in Table 3 shows that all items 11-15 revealed that the majority of the
   respondents agree that to a high extent participation in decision making improves teachers’ job
   commitment to duties in private secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State with a
   cumulative average mean of 3.33.
   Test of Hypotheses
   The simple linear regression was used to test the three null hypotheses.
   HO : Reward system does not significantly improve teachers’ job commitment to duties 1
   in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
   Table 4. Summary of simple linear regression analysis between reward system and teachers’ job
   commitment
   SN X SD Decision
   11 When I am involved in decision-making it enhance my
   commitment level to my job 3.34 .70 High Extent
   12 I participate in decision concerning school planning; it
   enhances my commitment to the school 3.30 .69 High Extent
   13 I am involved in decision making concerning
   curriculum and instruction and it makes me to identify
   the more with my teaching duties.
   3.24 .68 High Extent
   14 I participate in the decision making concerning school
   policies, rules and regulation; this makes me to be very
   much involved in the school activities.
   3.30 .71 High Extent
   15 I participate in decision making concerning student
   affairs and disciplinary problems which makes me
   identify with the core mandate of teaching job.
   3.45 .69 High Extent
   Average Mean Score 3.33 High Extent
   Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the
   Estimate
   1 .828a .685 .684 1.15005
   a. Predictors: (Constant), JOB_SECURITY
   ANOVAa
   Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
   1
   Regression 895.125 1 895.125 676.781 .000b
   Residual 411.335 311 1.323
   Total 1306.460 312
   a. Dependent Variable: TEACHER_JOB_COMMITMENT
   b. Predictors: (Constant), JOB_SECURITY
   126 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Coefficientsa
   Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized
   Coefficients
   t Sig.
   B Std. Error Beta
   1 (Constant) 3.129 .536 5.843 .000
   JOB_SECURITY .830 .032 .828 26.015 .000
   a. Dependent Variable: TEACHER_JOB_COMMITMENT
   Table 5 is the summary of simple linear regression analysis job security and teachers’ job
   commitment, Part A which is the table of model summary provides the R and R2 values. The R
   represents the simple correlation and is .828 which is a very high correlation. The R2 value
   indicates how much of the total variation in the dependent variable (teachers’ job commitment)
   can be explained by the independent variable (job security). In this case, .684×100=68.5%
   which is very high, thus job security does explain teachers’ job commitment. The part B is the
   ANOVA table indicates how well the regression equation predicts the dependent variable
   significantly well. Here, the p<.000, which is lesser than .05 and thus indicates that, overall, the
   regression model statistically significantly predict the outcome variable (i,e it is a good fit for the
   data). The part C is the Coefficient table which provides the beta value of .828, T value of 26.015
   and sig value of .000. This means that the direct effect and influence of job security on teachers’
   job commitment is statically significant and the association is very strong. Thus, satisfied the
   first model requirement for the assessment of the relationship between job security on teachers’
   job commitment. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected because the PV (0.000) ˂0.05 level
   of significance and the alternate hypothesis accepted thus job security significantly improves
   teachers’ job commitment.
   HO : Participation in Decision Making does not significantly improve teachers’ job 3
   commitment to duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
   Table 6 Summary of simple linear regression analysis between participation in decision making
   and teachers’ job commitment
   Model Summary
   Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the
   Estimate
   1 .738a .545 .543 1.38318
   a. Predictors: (Constant), PARTI__IN_DEC_MAKNG
   ANOVAa
   Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
   1
   Regression 711.461 1 711.461 371.873 .000b
   Residual 594.999 311 1.913
   Total 1306.460 312
   a. Dependent Variable: TEACHER_JOB_COMMITMENT
   b. Predictors: (Constant), PARTI__IN_DEC_MAKNG
   127 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Coefficientsa
   Model Unstandardized
   Coefficients
   Standardized
   Coefficients
   t Sig.
   B Std. Error Beta
   1 (Constant) 4.382 .657 6.671 .000
   PARTI__IN_DEC_MAKNG .757 .039 .738 19.284 .000
   a. Dependent Variable: TEACHER_JOB_COMMITMENT
   Table 6 is the summary of simple linear regression analysis participation in decision
   making and teachers’ job commitment, Part A which is the table of model summary provides the
   R and R2 values. The R represents the simple correlation and is .738 which is a very high
   correlation. The R2 value indicates how much of the total variation in the dependent variable
   (teachers’ job commitment) can be explained by the independent variable (participation in
   decision making). In this case, .543×100=54.3% which is very high, thus participation in
   decision making does explain teachers’ job commitment. The part B is the ANOVA table
   indicates how well the regression equation predicts the dependent variable significantly well.
   Here, the p<.000, which is lesser than .05 and thus indicates that, overall, the regression model
   statistically significantly predict the outcome variable (i,e it is a good fit for the data). The part C
   is the Coefficient table which provides the beta value of .738, T value of 19.284 and sig value of
   .000. This means that the direct effect and influence of participation in decision making on
   teachers’ job commitment is statically significant and the association is very strong. Thus,
   satisfied the first model requirement for the assessment of the relationship between
   participation in decision making on teachers’ job commitment. Therefore, the null hypothesis
   was rejected because the PV (0.000) ˂0.05 level of significance and the alternate hypothesis
   accepted thus participation in decision making significantly improves teachers’ job
   commitment.
   Summary of Findings
   The following findings emerged from the study
   based on the research questions and the null hypotheses tested.
5. Reward system significantly improves teachers’ job commitment to duties in public
   secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
6. Job security significantly improves teachers’ job commitment to duties in public
   secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
7. Participation in decision making significantly improves teachers’ job commitment to
   duties in public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State.
   4.4 Discussion of Findings
   Effect of Reward System on the Improvement of Teachers’ Job Commitment to Duties in
   Public Secondary Schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State
   The result of the analysis shows a significant level p<0.05 (0.000 < 0.05), r = 0.892. This means
   that to a very large extent, reward system significantly improves teachers’ job commitment in
   public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers. This findings is in concordance with that
   of Olurotimi, at al. (2015), their study revealed that reward system and teachers commitment
   were statistically significant at (Sig=0.000) in Public Secondary Schools in Mbale
   Municipality in Uganda. In the same vein, the outcome of this study agrees with that of Efanga
   and Akpan (2014) that principal dispensation of reward to teachers significantly influences
   teachers’ commitment to work.
   128 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Effect of Job Security on the Improvement of Teachers’ Job Commitment to Duties in Public
   Secondary Schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State
   The result of the analysis shows a significant level p<0.05 (0.000 < 0.05), r = 0.828. This
   means that to a very extent, job security significantly improves teachers’ job commitment in
   public secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers. The outcome of this present study is in
   agreement with that of Akpan (2013) whose study revealed that both job security and job
   satisfaction jointly had a significant effect (F = 9.87; P< .05) on organizational commitment of
   university teachers in Cross River State, Nigeria. Again, the study conforms with the findings of
   Akum and Oreva (2015) that job security positively relate with teachers’ job commitment
   public secondary schools in Rivers, Bayelsa and Akwa Ibom States.
   Effect of Participation in Decision Making on the Improvement of Teachers’ Job
   Commitment to Duties in Public Secondary Schools in Orashi Region of Rivers State. The
   result of the analysis shows a significant level p<0.05 (0.000 < 0.05), r = 0.738. This means that
   to a very extent, participation significantly improves teachers’ job commitment in public
   secondary schools in Orashi Region of Rivers. The findings of this study is in line with the study
   of Ngussa and Gabriel (2017) whose study concluded that there is significant relationship
   between participation in decision-making and teachers’ commitment among secondary schools
   teachers in Arusha Municipality, Tanzania. In the same vein, this study supports the findings of
   Wainaina, et al. (2014) that employee participation in decision making significantly influence
   university academic staffs’ organizational commitment in private and public universities in
   Kenya.
   Conclusion
   Based on the findings after critically analyzing the data, the study unequivocally
   concludes that reward system, which is compensation which an employee receives from an
   organization in exchange for the service offered by the employee or as the return for work done
   significantly improves teachers’ job commitment. In the same vein, the study concludes that job
   security, which is the assurance from the government or educational managers that a teacher
   will remain with school for a reasonable period of time without being wrongly dismissed,
   significantly improves teachers’ job commitment. Lastly, the study concluded that teacher’s
   participation in decision as it concerns school planning, curriculum and instruction, school
   polices, rules and regulation, school budgets etc. significantly improves teachers’ job
   commitment.
   Recommendations
   Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:
   · School administrators should pay more attention to the reward system they offer to
   public school teachers, as the study reveals that it has the ability to improve teachers’
   commitment the most.
   · Since the study reveals that job security improves teachers’ job commitment, school
   administrator should create proper working environment that gives teachers the
   assurance that they can keep their job for a longer period as they so wish.
   · Teachers should be allowed to be involved in making decisions especially those that
   affect their working life and that such decision when favorable should be implement.
   They should also be allowed to participate in decision-making in such issues as school
   planning, curriculum and instruction, school policies, rules and regulation, school
   budget and income generation, students affair and school discipline.
   129 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   References
   Abdullah, A. A. & Ramay, M. I. (2012). Antecedents of organizational commitment of banking
   sector employees in Pakistan: Serbain Journal of Management, 7(1), 89-102.
   Adebayo, O. I. & Lucky, O. I. E. (2012). Entrepreneurship development and national job
   security. Proceedings of the LASPOTECH SM National Conference on National Job
   Security Main Auditorium, June 25-26, 2012, Isolo Campus, Lagos, Nigeria.
   Akum, W. W. & Oreva, J. (2019). Administrative Variables and Teachers’ Job Commitment in
   Public Secondary Schools in Delta and Edo States of Nigeria. Asian Journal of
   Business Educational Research, 4(3), 31-38.
   Armstrong, M. (2012). Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice.
   New York, NY: Kogan Page Publishers.
   .
   Badrinarayan, S. R., &Tilekar, P. (2011). Critical analysis of motivators and hygiene factors
   with special reference to employees of private and public sector banks in India.
   International Journal of Research in IT & Management, 1(1), 39-50.
   Celep, C. (2000). Teachers’ organizational commitment in educational organizations. Trakya
   University. Edirne,TURKEY. National Forum of Teacher Education Journal, l (10), 3-
   17
   Coladarci, T. (2002). Teachers’ Sense of efficacy and commitment to teaching. The Journal of
   Experimental Education, 60 (4), 323-337.
   Crosswell, L. & Eliott, B. (2004). Committed teachers, passionate teachers: The dimension of
   passion associated with teacher commitment and engagement. [Proceedings] AARE
   Conference, Melbourne, Australia.
   Efanga. S. I., & Akpan, G. M. (2014). The role of principal in the dispensation of rewards to
   teachers in secondary schools in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. European Journal of
   Business and Management, 6(4), 165-170.
   Ibrahim, M., & Iqbal, M. (2015). Teachers’ perception of professional commitment (affective,
   continuance and normative commitment) to teaching profession. European Journal of
   Business and Management, 7(10), 64-80.
   James, G. (2012). How to achieve true job security. Retrieved from
   http://www.inc.com/Geoffrey-james/how-to-achieve-true-job-security.html on
   22/06/21
   Keung, C. C. (2008) Management Practices for Promoting Shared Decision Making. The
   Hong Kong Institute of Education.
   KPMG (2010). Recent study reveals job security more important than pay and benefits for
   university students. Retrieved: http://staceybrandall.wordpress.com/2010/04/06april-
   2010-recent- study-reveals-job-security-more-important-than-pay-and-benefits-foruniversity-
   students/ on 23/6/2021
   130 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Lin, H. F. (2007). Effects of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on employee knowledge sharing
   intentions. Journal of Information Science, 33(2), 135-149.
   Mackenzie, C. P. & Nwafor, S. (2019). In-service training and job security as determinants of
   teachers’ commitment in public senior secondary schools in Abia State. International
   Journal of Education and Evaluation, 5(7), 12-24.
   Muindi, K. F. (2011). The Relationship between Participation in Decision-making and Job
   Satisfaction. Journal of Human Resources Management Research, 16(11), 98-123.
   Ngussa, B. M., & Gabriel, L. (2017). Participation in decision making and teachers’
   commitment: A comparative study between public and private secondary schools in
   Arusha Municipality, Tanzania. American Journal of Educational Research, 5(7), 801-
8. DOI: 10.12691/education-5-7-17.
   Northouse, P. G. (2004). Leadership: Theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
   Publications.
   Olaniyi, J. O. (2008). Foundations of public policy analysis. Ibadan, Nigeria: SUNAD
   Publishers Limited.
   Olurotimi, O. J., Asad, K. W. & Abdulraul, A. (2015). Motivational factors and teachers
   commitment in public secondary schools in Mbale Municipality. Journal of Education
   and Practice, 6(15), 117-122.
   Singh, K., & Billinnsgley, B. S. (2008). Professional support and its effects on teachers’
   commitment. Journal of Educational Research, 91(4), 229-239.
   Somech, A. & Bogler, R. (2004). Influence of teacher empowerment on teachers’ organizational
   commitment, professional commitment and organizational citizenship behavior in
   schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 277–289.
   Thien, L., Razak, N. & Ramayah, T. (2014). Validating teacher commitment scale using a
   Malaysian sample. SAGE Open, 2(1), 1-9.
   Wainaina, L., Iravo, M. & Waititu, A. (2014). Effect of teachers’ participation in decision
   making on the organizational commitment amongst academic staff in the private and
   public universities in Kenya. International Journal of Advanced Research in
   Management and Social Sciences, 5(18), 278-292.
   Werang, B. R., & Pure, E. A. G. (2018). Designing strategy for improving teacher’s
   organizational commitment in the remote elementary schools of Merauke district,
   Papua, Indonesia. International Journal of Research Studies in Education, 7(1), 15-28.
   131 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   ASSESSMENT OF TECHNOLOGICAL SKILLS REQUIRED FOR MECHANICAL
   ENGINEERING CRAFT STUDENTS FOR MAINTAINING MECHANICAL
   MACHINES IN GOVERNMENT TECHNICAL COLLEGES
   IN RIVERS STATE.
   by
   ONUOTU CHRISTIAN , NOKARA VICTOR IBEZE
   & OLUMBA THANKGOD H.
   Abstract
   Assessment of Technological Skills Required for Mechanical Engineering Craft
   Students for Maintaining Mechanical Machines in Government Technical Colleges in Rivers
   State is aimed at determining the extent to which students have acquired practical skills before
   graduation. The study adopted survey research design. The population for this study comprises
   65 respondents, made up of 40 Mechanical engineering craft teachers and 25 Mechanical
   engineering craft instructors. The study answered two research questions and tested two
   hypotheses. The instrument comprising of practical skills items or operations based on NBTE
   curriculum and NABTEB syllabus were developed and validated by three experts. Data
   collected were analyzed using statistical mean, Standard deviation and t-test. The result of the
   study showed that the mechanical engineering craftsmen experience unemployment not
   because the industries are saturated but because the current practical skills they have acquired
   are no longer in consonance with current practices in the industries. Based on this result, it was
   recommended amongst others that Mechanical engineering craft teachers should endeavour to
   use the improved teaching techniques to enhance students practical skill acquisition as a guide
   for teaching the practical skill units so as to improve the quality of instruction and enhance
   adequate content coverage of the curriculum. The teaching of machine tools operations by
   mechanical engineering craft teachers should be guided by a well-defined specific objectives
   and relevant learning experiences and activities.
   Key words: Practical skills; Assessment, Mechanical, engineering, craft, Technology
   Introduction
   The role of technical, vocational education and training (TVET) in facilitating
   employment opportunities should not be neglected in Nigeria, as it has the potential to enhance
   job creation, wealth generation, poverty reduction and technological transformation, which
   could help to minimize insecurity in the nation which unemployment and poverty usually breed.
   As Nigerians’ currently face many challenges ranging from economic challenges, socialcultural
   challenges, developmental challenges, insecurity, among others, technical vocational
   education and training (TVET) could serve as one of the ways to address these problems. It was
   established in Nigeria to impart skills and entrepreneurial spirit needed to create wealth and
   enhance the economic development of the nation. The aim of establishing technical vocational
   education and training was not only to activate the unemployed in an attempt to reconnect them
   with the labour market and reduce overall level of unemployment, but also to activate the
   economically inactive. According to Obidile (2018), TVET is mostly offered in Universities of
   Onuotu Christian N., Federal College of Education (Tech.) Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria,
   Okara Victor Ibeze & Olumba Thankgod H., Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port
   Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
   132 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   Technology, Colleges of Technology, Monotechnics and Technical Colleges (National Board
   for Technical Education 2007).
   Technical colleges are regarded as the principal vocational institutions in Nigeria. They
   give full vocational training intended to prepare students for entry into various occupations. On
   the completion of the course of training, students obtain work in industries or establish business
   on their own. It is hoped that this new curriculum will produce well trained technical manpower
   at various levels (operatives, craftsmen and master craftsmen) and in various technical and
   vocational fields. (Ogundu 2020). Technical colleges train craftsmen in painting and decorating,
   electrical installations and maintenance, plumbing, radio and TV repair, brick/block laying,
   mechanical engineering craft practice, etc (David 2010). Technical colleges were established
   out of the quest for technological skills.
   Technological skills can be described as the technical expertise applied in the
   development and manipulation of devices, machines and techniques for manufacturing and
   productive processes. According to Osinem (2018), technology skill is a type of expertise
   requiring a good understanding and proficiency in a specific activity, particularly one involving
   methods, procedures or techniques and processes. Medina (2010) defined technology skills as
   the expertise or technical competence related to the field of the worker, whether engineering or
   technical. These skills are not static; they are changing with the trends and changes in
   technological development. However, this development calls for technological skills.
   Technological skills refer to new set of skills required in utilization of trending technological
   devices. According to Rotolo, Hicks and Martin (2015), technological skills are contemporarily
   advanced and innovative skills that are capable of changing the status quo employed in the
   maintenance of mechanical appliances. These skills just as their name implies demand
   understanding through learning for their effective utilization especially, in maintenance of
   mechanical machines.
   Mechanical Engineering Skill
   According to (Crawford, 2010) Mechanical engineering is a branch of engineering that
   deals with machines and production of power. It is particularly concerned with forces and
   motion. He further noted that mechanical engineering is one of the several recognized fields of
   engineering that has from the practice of machines of an art of trial and error to the application of
   scientific method in research, design and production. He defined it as that branch of engineering
   which deals with machines and mechanized processes. He further stated that mechanical
   engineering in particular is concerned with power generation, transmission, maintenance and
   utilization of tools and equipment.
   Maintenance simply means protection against break down of an equipment, tool or machine.
   Narayan (2014) stated that maintenance involves taking specific approved steps and precautions
   to care for a piece of equipment, machinery or facility and ensure it attains its maximum shelflife.
   According to Villemeur (2011), maintenance is a combination of all technical and
   administrative actions including supervision intended to retain an entity or restore it to a state in
   which it can better perform a required function. Odouh (2013) also defined maintenance as a
   systematic supporting service on any device or equipment to ensure the continued operation of
   the facilities. Maintenance is necessary in all operations like milling, grinding, cutting, drilling,
   and slotting operations etc.
   Milling Operation
   Milling is a cutting process that uses a milling cutter to remove material from the surface
   of a work piece. The milling cutter is a rotary cutting tool. Often with multiple cutting points. As
   opposed to drilling. Where the tool is advanced along its rotation axis, the cutter in milling is
   133 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   usually moved perpendicular to its axis so that cutting occurs on the circumference of the cutter.
   As the milling cutter enters the work piece, the cutting edges (flutes or teeth) of the tool
   repeatedly cut into and exit from the material, shaving off chips (swarf) from the work piece with
   each pass. The cutting action is shear deformation; material is pushed off the work piece in tiny
   clumps that hang together to a greater or lesser extent (depending on the material) to form chips
   like shaping operation (Brown & Sharpe 2013).
   Grinding is a strategic process for high-technology applications. It was realized, for
   example, by manufacturers of aero-engineering and missile guidance systems, that grinding was
   the key to achieving the necessary quality. This provided the motivation for rapid development
   in the latter part of the twentieth century. More resent still, grinding has become a strategic
   process for production of optical quality surfaces for communication and for electronic devices.
   Modern technology has also seen a trend towards hard ceramic materials that bring new
   challenges for economic manufacture. K issues are identified as cost, quality and speed of
   production. Distinctive features are the ability to machine very hard materials including steels
   and ceramics with high accuracy, low surface roughness and high surface integrity. Modern
   trend include increasing speeds of production, use of harder and more sophisticated abrasives
   and improved machines and control system cable of ultra-precision (Andrew 2014).
   Slotting machine (slotter) is a reciprocating type of machine tool similar to a shaper or a
   planer machine. It may be considered as a vertical shaper. The main difference between a slotter
   and a shaper is the direction of the cutting action. The slotting machine operates in a manner
   similar to the shaper. However, the cutting tool moves in vertical direction rather than in a
   horizontal direction. The work piece is held stationary. The slotting machine has a vertical ram
   and a hand or power operated rotary table (Sheyin, 2006). Other machining process involves
   milling operations.
   In shaping operations, the tool is brought into position with the work piece. The tool then
   repeatedly moves in a straight line while the work piece is incrementally fed into the line of
   motion of the tool. This produces a flat, smooth, and sculpted surface. For shaped pieces the tool
   reciprocates across the stationary work piece. The tools are usually tilted or lifted after each
   stroke. This is done hydraulically or manually in order to prevent the tool surface from chipping
   when the work piece travels back across like drilling operation (Robert and Dell, 2014).
   Drilling Operation
   Drilling operations usually produce a cylindrical hole inside the work piece and remove
   the material inside it. Here, the material is removed by the rotating edge of the tool. And that
   rotating edge is called a drill. (Pankaj 2019). Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut
   a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool
   often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to
   thousands of revolutions per minutes. This forces the cutting edge against the work-piece,
   cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled. In rock drilling, the hole is usually not made
   through a circular cutting motion, though the bit is usually rotated. Instead, the hole is usually
   made by hammering a drill bit into the hole with quick repeated short movements after grinding
   (Mattson, 2009).
   According to Okorie and Ezeji (2004), it is with relevant curriculum that the training of
   quality and efficient skilled mechanical engineering crafts students can be achieved. Abifarin
   (2009) while affirming the increasing demand in the training of mechanical engineering crafts
   students stated that they have to be exposed to basic practical foundations such as principles and
   operation of production machines like automatic lathe, magnetic chuck and center less grinding
   machines. Other areas include metallurgy and production of steels, principles of digital and
   computerized equipment, foundry technology, tolerance and interchangeability in production.
   For example, machine shop practice is an integral part of mechanical engineering, which
   134 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
   involves the knowledge of how to operate and maintain all the equipment. However, when these
   technological skills are taught by qualified teachers in the technical colleges in the informal
   educational sector, the students will be equipped with the relevant skills for self-employment on
   graduation. It is against this background that the researcher sought to assess the technological
   skills required for mechanical engineering craft students for maintaining mechanical machines
   in government technical colleges in Rivers State.
   Research Questions:
   The following research questions guided the study:
9. What are the milling skills required for mechanical engineering craft students in
   government technical colleges in Rivers State?
10. What are the Grinding skills required for mechanical engineering craft students in
    government technical colleges in Rivers State?
    Research Hypotheses:
    The researcher chooses to adopt Null Hypotheses and the following hypotheses will be
    tested at 0.05 levels of significance:
    HO1. There is no significant difference between the mean response of instructors and teachers
    of technical colleges on the milling skills required for mechanical engineering craft
    students in government technical colleges in Rivers State.
    HO2. There is no significant difference between the mean response of instructors and teachers
    of technical colleges on the grinding skills required for mechanical engineering craft
    students in government technical colleges in Rivers State.
    Methodology
    The study adopted survey research design. The population for this study comprises 65
    respondents, made up of 40 Mechanical engineering craft teachers and 25 Mechanical
    engineering craft instructors. The instrument comprising of practical skills items or operations
    based on NBTE curriculum and NABTEB syllabus were developed and validated by three
    experts. The instrument is based on five-point Likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A),
    Undecided (UD), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) with numerical values of 5, 4, 3, 2
    and 1 respectively. Data collected were analyzed using statistical mean, Standard deviation and
    t-test.
    Results
    Research Question one
    What are the milling skills required for mechanical engineering craft students in
    government technical colleges in Rivers State?
    From the data presented in table two, the grand mean of the items range from 4.14 and
    4.20. All the items had their mean above 3.50 indicating the milling operations skills required
    for mechanical engineering craft students in government technical colleges in Rivers State. The
    standard deviations for all the items are within the same range showing that the respondents
    S/N ITEMS TEACHERS INSTRUCTORS
    X1 SD1 RMK X2 SD2 RMK
    1 Select the work piece 4.08 .900 Agree 4.21 .806 Agree
    2 Mark out the position to be milled 3.62 1.17 Agree 4.19 .937 Agree
    3 Select appropriate cutters 4.24 .783 Agree 4.37 .517 Agree
    4 Clean up the machine 4.10 .886 Agree 4.43 .604 Agree
    135 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    were homogeneous in their opinions.
    Research Question two
    What are the Grinding skills required for mechanical engineering craft students in
    government technical colleges in Rivers State?
    From the data presented in table five, the grand mean of the items range from 4.14 and
    4.21. All the items had their mean above 3.50 indicating the Grinding Skills required for
    mechanical engineering craft students in government technical colleges in Rivers State. The
    standard deviations for all the items are within the same range showing that the respondents
    were homogeneous in their opinions.
    Hypothesis 1
    There is no significant difference between the mean response of instructors and teachers
    of technical colleges on the milling skills required for mechanical engineering craft students in
    government technical colleges in Rivers State.
    The result in table 3, indicates that there is no significant difference between the mean
    response of instructors and teachers of technical colleges on the milling skills required for
    mechanical engineering craft students in government technical colleges in Rivers State as the tcalculated
    is less than the t-critical. The hypothesis is therefore upheld.
    5 Power the machine & set it for milling
    operation
    4.10 .974 Agree 4.40 .646 Agree
    6 Sharpen milling cutter 3.72 1.12 Agree 3.39 1.18 Agree
    7 Select indexing plate: hexagonal &
    pentagonal
    4.64 .485 Agree 4.54 .736 Agree
    8 Mill parallel and square surface 4.44 .644 Agree 4.17 .916 Agree
    9 Set the sector arm 4.30 .678 Agree 4.23 .726 Agree
    10 Mount & align the cutters 4.21 .806 Agree 4.10 .974 Agree
    GM & SD 4.14 .884 Agree 4.20 .804 Agree
    S/N ITEMS TEACHERS INSTRUCTORS
    X1 SD1 RMK X2 SD2 RMK
    11 Select the work piece to be grinded 4.08 .900 Agree 4.21 .806 Agree
    12 Identify the property of the work piece 3.62 1.17 Agree 4.19 .937 Agree
    13 Select appropriate grinding wheel 4.24 .783 Agree 4.37 .517 Agree
    14 Mark out the portion of the work piece to
    be grinded
    4.10 .886 Agree 4.43 .604 Agree
    15 Power the grinding machine 4.06 .974 Agree 4.40 .646 Agree
    16 Set the speed of the wheel 3.72 1.12 Agree 3.39 1.18 Agree
    17 Grind the work piece, observing safety 4.64 .485 Agree 4.54 .736 Agree
    18 Lubricate the grinded area of the work
    piece
    4.44 .644 Agree 4.17 .916 Agree
    19 Un-mount the grinding wheel 4.30 .678 Agree 4.23 .726 Agree
    20 Clean the work piece 4.19 .937 Agree 3.62 1.17 Agree
    GM & SD 4.14 .858 Agree 4.21 .759 Agree
    Group N X SD Df t-Cal t-Crit Decision
    Teachers 40 4.14 .884 118
    .020
    1.960
    Not
    significant
    136 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Hypothesis 2
    There is no significant difference between the mean response of instructors and teachers
    of technical colleges on the grinding skills required for mechanical engineering craft students in
    government technical colleges in Rivers State.
    The result in table 4, indicates that there is no significant difference between the mean
    response of instructors and teachers of technical colleges on the grinding skills required for
    mechanical engineering craft students in government technical colleges in Rivers State as the tcalculated
    is less than the t-critical. The hypothesis is therefore upheld
    Discussion
    The main contribution of this study is the successful development of a valid and reliable
    instrument to assess teachers and instructors. The findings of the study related to research
    question one revealed that the grand mean of the items range from 4.14 and 4.21. All the items
    had their mean above 3.50 indicating the Grinding Skills required for mechanical engineering
    craft students in government technical colleges in Rivers State. The standard deviations for all
    the items are within the same range showing that the respondents were homogeneous in their
    opinions.
    The findings of the study related to research question two revealed that the grand mean of
    the items range from 4.14 and 4.21. All the items had their mean above 3.50 indicating the
    Grinding Skills required for mechanical engineering craft students in government technical
    colleges in Rivers State. The standard deviations for all the items are within the same range
    showing that the respondents were homogeneous in their opinions.
    The non-significance differences between the two groups of teachers and instructors that
    participated in the instrument validation are further evidence of the instrument’s validity. The
    analysis of data relating to the null hypothesis 1 revealed that there is no significant difference
    between the mean response of instructors and teachers of technical colleges on the milling skills
    required for mechanical engineering craft students in government technical colleges in Rivers
    State as the t-calculated is less than the t-critical. The hypothesis is therefore upheld.
    The analysis of data relating to the null hypothesis 2 revealed that there is no significant
    difference between the mean response of instructors and teachers of technical colleges on the
    grinding skills required for mechanical engineering craft students in government technical
    colleges in Rivers State as the t-calculated is less than the t-critical. The hypothesis is therefore
    upheld.
    Conclusion
    If the mechanical engineering based industries are to continue in production then it
    becomes pertinent that a comprehensive review of the technical college mechanical engineering
    craft practice curriculum must be embarked on.
    Recommendations
11. Mechanical engineering craft teachers should endeavour to use the improved teaching
    techniques to enhance students’ practical skill acquisition as a guide for teaching the
    practical skill units so as to improve the quality of instruction and enhance adequate
    Group N X SD Df t-Cal t-Crit Decision
    Teachers 40 4.14 .858 118
    .020
    1.960
    Not
    Instructors 25 4.21 .759 significant
    137 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    content coverage of the curriculum.
12. The teaching of machine tools operations by mechanical engineering craft teachers
    should be guided by a well-defined specific objectives and relevant learning
    experiences and activities.
    References
    Andrew, I. (2019). Assessment of mechanical engineering craft practice production units.
    https://modishproject.blogspot.com/https://facebook.com/modishprojecthttps://www
    .linkedin.cm/in/prince-ukata 49001598/https://www.pinterest.com/
    princeukata/https://twitter.com/@modishprojec1
    Abifarin, S. A. (2009). Challenges of practical skill acquisition in vocational and technical
    education in Nigeria, a paper presented at the 10th annual conference of Nigerian
    Association of Teachers of Technology. Minna, Nigeria.
    Brown and Sharpe (2013) Practical treatise on milling and machines. Manufacturing company.
    Jan 2013.
    Crawford, S. (2010). Basic engineering processes. London: Hodder & Stoughton
    Mattson, Mike (2009), CNC. Programming: principles and Applications 2nd ed, cenfegelearnin,
    P. 233 https://en.wikipedia.org/wikitiurning
    NABTEB (2007). National business and technical examination board syllabus for
    engineering trade examination (based on NBTE modular curriculum). ETF
    intervention in TVET.
    Narayan, V. (2014). Effective maintenance management: Risk and reliability strategies for
    optimizing performance. Retrieved from http://www.industrialpress.com/en/htm
    Obidile, J. I. (2018). Strategies for improving technical and vocational education (TVE)
    programme to reduce unemployment in Nigeria. NAU Journal of Technology and
    Vocational Education 3(1), 1-10.
    Odouh, B.K (2013): Maintenance management principles: A Paper presented at a workshop in
    maintenance management. At The Faculty of Engineering, UNN
    Ogundu, I. (2020) Technical vocational education and training (TVET) in Nigeria: History,
    Issues, and Theories. Port Harcourt: IS-JAC INT’L CO
    Okorie, J. U. and Ezeji. S. C. O. (2004). Element of guidance, vocational and carrier education;
    Osinem, E.C. (2018). Management agricultural education and training: Resources, principles
    and methods. Enugu: Bolony international publishers
    Robert, T.H and Dell A. K. (2014) Manufacturing processes reference guide. New York:
    Industrial press inc. Pp. 124-125.
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planing_(shaping)#Process
    Sheyin, M. (2006). Strategies for improving metal work teachers competencies in maintenance
    of workshop tools and equipment in Kaduna State Technical College. Unpublished
    M.Ed Thesis, Department of vocational teacher education, University of Nigeria,
    Nsukka.
    Villemeur, B.N (2011). Basic maintenance strategies of technology education teachers.
    Journal on Technical Education Today. 4(3); 73 – 86.
    138 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    DECLINE OF FISHES IN FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM: A CASE OF ORASHI
    IN OGBA AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
    BY
    BEN-FRED JOSY CHUKS
    Abstract
    Fresh water fishes are important sentinels of environmental conditions and play a
    crucial role in the ecology and sustainability of natural ecosystem. The decline of fresh water
    fishes in Orashi River is one of the greatest impending environmental crisis facing Ogba
    inhabitants. This work tackles the decline of fresh water fishes of Orashi River in Ogba Kingdom
    of Rivers State, Nigeria. Remote and immediate threats of this decline had been described as
    they affect the environment including natural climate defects. Seventy (70) respondents were
    confronted with verbal questionnaire structured Yes or No. Members of the larger Ogba
    Communities, Rivers State of Nigeria mostly the fisher-folk form the respondents. Findings
    show that remote and immediate causes of the decline are the greatest factors to this surge with
    climate change at a low ebb. One of such factors on the climate change is the inconsistence of
    flood in the region.
    Keywords: Decline of Fishes, Freshwater, Ecosystem, Orashi, Ogba, Acuatic Ecozone
    Introduction
    Orashi is a zone that comprises of Ahoada East Local Government Area, Ahoada West
    Local Government Area, Abua/Odual Local Government Area and Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni Local
    Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. It is located in the Northern part of Rivers State and
    bounded by the Orashi River which the zone derives its name. Orashi River is a fresh water and
    the major river that flows across Ogba. Other estuaries of the Orashi River are for example;
    Sombreiro River (Nkissa), River Omoku and other adjoining lakes like Ebiam in Obrikom,
    Onita Creek, Otua and many others which flow into it. Orashi River is a tributary of the River
    Niger from which it increases after receiving water from it during flood. Orashi River has its
    source at Okija in Anambra State. One of the Estuaries of the Orashi River, the Sombrero
    (Nkissa) crosses to Egbema in Imo State and finally empties at River Omoku.
    However, Ogba inhabitants are fishermen by occupation whose fishing expertise solely
    relies on the Orashi River. The major tools of the fishermen in Ogba are hooks (Ukpo), fishing
    baskets (Echira), spears (Okniyna), dragnets (Igbo) and nets (Eri). The local locomotive boat is
    Ugboakiri otherwise known as 404 because it floats and moves very fast when manipulated with
    paddle because it accommodates one person only. Orashi River volume of water increases
    annually in the month of August through September. Flood helps fishes in diverse means as
    quantity of fish is increased; fishes interbreed and food or prey are found in greater quantity. For
    over ten (10) years before the year 2012 of the great flood, flooding has been in low ebb thereby
    affecting fish increase in the river.
    Fresh water fishes constitute half the number of fishes in all number of fishes in all the
    water bodies (Walsh 2009). Fish decline is termed to be the greatest impending environment
    crises facing humanity which is the same to Ogba fishermen. Fresh water fishes are important
    sentinels of environmental conditions and play crucial role in the ecology and sustainability of
    139 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Ben-Fred Josy Chuks, School of Secondary Education (Arts & Social Sciences), Federal
    College of Education Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria.
    natural ecosystem. The natural balance of both aquatic and terrestrial communities including
    birds, mammals, reptiles and other fishes is dependent on the fish population that provides
    critical functions such as cycling nutrients in food chain and serving as prey to a large variety of
    carnivores (Walsh 2009).
    To go deep into the study in order to tackle the fishing menace, the following questions
    are asked in the study so that answers will be provided to proffer a possible solution.
    A. What are the remote causes of the decline of fishes in freshwater ecosystem?
    B. What are the immediate causes of this threat of decline of fishes?
    C. Has climate change any effect on the above threat?
    Statement OF the Problem
    For a couple of years, catching of fish at Orashi River by fishermen in Ogba had declined
    causing untold hardship to the inhabitants. This decline of fishes in freshwater ecosystem has
    serious negative economic effect on the environment.
    Purpose of the Study
    Purpose of this study is to identify the remote and immediate causes of the decline of
    fishes in freshwater ecosystem in Orashi River and how it has caused a serious problem in Ogba
    aquatic ecozone including the effect of climate change.
    Significance of the Study
    This study will help the fishermen in Ogba clan to know the essential variables that are
    responsible to the surge of this decline of fishes in the river to enable them create adaptive
    measures to suit their occupation.
    Remote Causes of the Threats of Fishes Decline
    Flooding in Orashi is only the major source of increase in water volume. It comes from
    oceans which over-flow their banks and tributaries. The flooding creates room for variety of
    fishes to migrate to other rivers for interbreeding and nutrient recycling. It is an annual
    occurrence. In the remote past, the construction of Kanji Dam as Hydro-Electric Power (H.E.P)
    has affected flooding into Orashi River not until the great flood of 2012. This destruction or
    modification of habitants has resulted in reducing range size or loss of population and other
    intensive land-use practices (Irish et al 1996). However, with the continuous yearly flood from
    2012 to date, the volume of water in the Orashi River seems to have increased tremendously.
    The use of poisonous chemicals such as Dynamites and Gamalin 20 to catch fishes is
    dangerous. When the fishes are caught with these chemicals, obviously some of the smaller
    fishes will die thereby not allowing fingerlings to grow in the water to feed the population.
    Another threat is over-fishing by fishermen for subsidy and income. This over fishing reduces
    stock because of the constrained nature of fresh-water environment which comparatively limits
    the scope for withstanding intensive over-fishing and exploitation. Similar to this is the
    operation of the Multi-national Companies (MNC) also known as International Oil Companies
    (IOC) in the seismic operation geared towards exploration and exploitation in the environment.
    The emission of hydrocarbon into the river in their activities has caused a great damage coupled
    with the noise pollution generated by these operations that has killed and/or driven the fishes far
    away from the Orashi River into the River Niger and the Atlantic Ocean.
    Immediate Cause of the Threats
    Nowadays, the population of fishermen that explores the river for catch has reduced
    tremendously due to youths’ mass exodus to urban areas for greener pasture. The few aged ones
    140 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    do not make adequate catch to feed the community. Lack of fishing materials is another factor
    militating against one of the major requirements. Fishing needs variety of fishing materials.
    Now many of the fishermen cannot afford buying enough hooks, nets, spears, fishing baskets,
    dragnets and others. Despite that, pollution and compound effects of multiple pollutants have
    reduced aquatic quantity. With that, only the most tolerant species survive and remain in the
    water. In another development, smaller fishes are prey to bigger ones in the river. However, it
    is obvious that the same may happen in Orashi River thereby resulting in depopulation of fishes
    in the river. Those bigger fishes are predators while the smaller fishes are preys.
    Climate Change
    A very significant and salient factor that causes the decline of fishes in the Orashi River
    as earlier highlighted is climate change. Climate change and regional variation in rainfall
    pattern, store events and droughts affect habitat and potentially have negative consequences
    for nutrient recycling in food chain. This occurrences may lead to diseases that will cut short
    the life span of fishes in Orashi River, which may decline the population of the biodiversity. For
    instance, “whirling diseases, a microscopic parasite introduced from Europe has ravaged many
    wild and hatchery population of trout, striped bass and sturgeon” (Walsh et al 2009).
    Methodology
    Seventy (70) of the fisher-folk were selected randomly from Ogba Communities as
    respondents. The verbal questionnaire structured in Yes or No format was used since many of
    the fisher-folk were illiterates.
    Data Analysis
    Simple percentage was used to analyze the data of the verbal questionaire. A factor was
    significant if it has a high percentage as the author has presented the answers in the tables
    below.
    Table 1: Remote Cause of the decline of fishes in freshwater ecosystem?
    S/N QUESTIONNAIRE YES% NO% TOTAL
    1 Is Orashi the major river crossing Ogba? 60 10 70
    2 Is flooding an annual occurrence in Orashi River? 65 5 70
    3 Does the flood take its source from River Niger? 50 20 70
    4 Does the Kanji Dam cause the decline of fishes in
    Orashi river
    56 14 70
    Average % 58 12 70
    Source: Field survey, Ogba Communities.
    Table 2: Immediate Cause of the threat of decline of fishes?
    S/N QUESTIONNAIRE YES% NO% TOTAL
    5 Is it true that the population of
    Fishermen has declined?
    40 30 70
    6 Is it caused by youths exiting for greener pasture? 45 25 70
    7 Is the decline caused by lack of fishing implements? 52 18 70
    8 Is the decline caused by pollutants? 46 24 70
    Average % 46 24 70
    Source: Field survey, Ogba Communities.
    141 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Results
    Table 1
    Table 1 shows that Orashi River is the major river crossing Ogba, flooding is an annual
    occurrence in Orashi River, Orashi takes its flooding source from Rriver Niger, Kanji Dam was
    the cause of the decline on an average of 58% Yes and 12% No.
    Table 2
    Table 2 indicates that the population of fisher-folk declined because the youths who are supposed
    to join fishing exited the Ogba environment for greener pastures, lack of fishing materials and
    pollutants as the cause of the decline of fishes in orashi River had an average of 46% Yes and 24%
    No.
    Table 3
    Table 3 reveals that a regional variation causes decline of fishes; drought from climate change,
    storm events and diseases in the water which cause decline of fishes in Orashi River had an
    average of 43% Yes and 27% No.
    Discussion
    The decline of fishes in fresh water ecosystem affected Orashi River, the only major
    fishing river in Ogba. This ought not to be, because streams, lakes, rivers and ponds around
    would have contributed to increase in fishes. The population of young fisher-folk should not
    decline. What about academic dropouts? They should engage themselves in fishing activities to
    defray the shortfall in supply of fishes in the environment. Such out-door activities will
    obviously cut-off idle minds and the consequences of their inactions. The general effect of this
    decline of fishes in Orashi River will result in the increase of fish price in Ogba and the Orashi
    vicinity if care is taken to ameliorate this ugly trend. The communities in Ogba and the entire
    Orashi zone in due course will resort to eating beef from cattle that are moved from Northern
    Nigeria. Generally, fishes has more nutritious value to the body than beef.
    Conclusion
    It is in the opinion of the author in this study that funds should be raised by Federal and
    State Governments to encourage interested individuals to embark on fish production for increase
    in supply. All inhibitory factors to this surge should be addressed and avoided to boost national
    development.
    Recommendations
    To reduce fishes decline in Orashi River, avenues should be created to cub the excess
    release of water in the dams to avoid the over-flooding of Orashi River and other rivers in Nigeria
    Table 3: Has climate change any effect on the above threat?
    S/N QUESTIONNAIRE YES% NO% TOTAL
    9 Is it a regional variation that causes the
    decline of fishes?
    44 26 70
    10 Is it drought from climate change? 51 19 70
    11 Is it storm events that cause the decline? 36 34 70
    12 Is it disease in the water that causes the decline? 40 30 70
    Average 43 27 70
    Source: Field Survey, Ogba Communities.
    142 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    like River Niger, and River Benue. For example, Kanji and Shiroro Dams from Niger State,
    Dadinkowa Dam from Gombe State, Oya Dam from Osun and Ikpoba Dam from Edo State
    should be reactivated to meet the current demand in line with global practice. This will enable
    fishes migrate to nearby rivers and interbreed for population increase. Emphasis should be
    placed on more production of fishes by putting in more votes to increase and to boost the
    production. Private individuals and corporate organizations should be encouraged by granting
    loans to those interested in fish farming.
    References
    American Institute of Bioscience (2009). Challenges of Restoration of Aquatic Wild life
    Vol.59, No. 8. New York: New York Press.
    Heifman, G. S. (2007). Fish Conservation: A Guide to Understanding and Restoring Global
    Aquatic Biodiversity and Fishery Resources. Wastington D.C: Island Press, P. 584.
    Irish, K. E. and E. A. Norse (1996). Scant Emphasis on Mine Biodiversity Conservation Biology
    10 (2). New York: AIB Press P. 680.
    Master, L.L., S.R. Flack and B. A. Steineds (1998). Rivers of Life Critical Water Shades for
    Protecting the Fresh Water Biodiversity. The Nature of Conservancy P.71.
    Uchendu, V. C. (1969). Journal of Nutrition: Nigerian Peasant Farmers with Special Reference
    to Effect of Vitamin A and Riboflavin Deficiency. Vol. 3 No. 1. Umuahia: Taban Printing
    Enterprises.
    Walsh, J. S. (2009). Conservation: American Status of Imperial North Water Fisheries and
    Diadromous Fishes Fisheries 33 (8). Pp. 372-407.
    143 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    THE EFFECT OF TEAM-TEACHING IN THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
    OF BASIC TECHNOLOGY STUDENTS IN JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
    IN OMOKU, RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA.
    By
    DIBIA FELIX ONYELABUCHUKWU
    Department of Industrial Technical Education (Mechanical Technology),
    Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku,
    Rivers State, Nigeria.
    Abstract
    This study examined the effect of team teaching in the academic performances of students
    in Basic Technology in Junior Secondary Schools in Omoku, Rivers State; four junior
    government secondary schools in Omoku which include Sancta Maria High School, Model Boys
    Secondary School, Community Girls Secondary School and Community Secondary School all in
    Omoku were selected for this study. The Mean method was used as the research instrument which
    was distributed to sections (a) and (b) which includes (a) the students and (b) Teachers. The
    researcher developed twenty structured items, ten for the Teachers’ questionnaire and ten for the
    students’ questionnaire. The questionnaire items were formulated using likert four-point
    structured rating scale. The result of this study showed that there is a significant difference
    between the performance of students taught using team teaching and those taught in a
    conventional single-teacher classroom.
    Keywords: Team-Teaching, Academic Performance, Basic Technology, Junior Secondary
    Schools.
    Introduction
    Education for work had its beginning many years ago. There are various trades where the
    parent would educate children to continue in the family trade thereby continuing age long
    practice of family business. For instance, the son of a carpenter would be educated in the trade of
    carpentry by the father, in the same way the child of a fisherman will be trained to be a fisherman
    and so on. This act was in its primitive way the beginning of vocational education.
    Vocational education formally prepares individuals for the world of work. In the light of the
    above, vocational education is offered at the different levels of the educational sectors ranging
    from the post primary levels, secondary schools levels, and the tertiary levels respectively.
    According to Udo (2004), Vocational Education is designed, to develop skill,
    ability, understanding, attitudes, work habits and appreciation that confer knowledge needed to
    enter and make progress in employment on useful and productive bases. Pre-vocational subjects
    offered include, Basic Technology, Business studies, Agricultural science etc. According to the
    Federal Government of Nigeria (2004), Basic Technology taught as pre-vocational subject to
    every students is designed as an integrated subject to introduce students to the rudiment of
    vocational subject. According to Bamiro, Elewa, and Anyabolu, (2002), Basic Technology was
    introduced to provide:
    144 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Dibia Felix Onyelabuchukwu, Department of Industrial Technical Education (Mechanical
    Technology), Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria.
13. Pre-vocational orientation for further training in technology,
14. Basic technological literacy for everyday living, and
15. Stimulate creativity in students.
    The subject, Obomanu (2001) had observed that Basic Technology is an aspect of
    general education curriculum which attempts to provide learning experiences that would
    assist students in understanding the industrial and technological aspects of life by offering
    instructions in selected areas such as metalwork, woodwork, Building,
    Electricity/Electronics, Technical drawing, Auto-mechanics, plastics, ceramics, and
    textiles. This implies a systematic arrangement of all Vocational subjects under one
    subject at the junior secondary school level. After the Introduction of Basic Technology in
    schools, government envisioned that for its desired goals to be met, adequate facilities
    should be provided for effective learning. Consequently, sets of Basic Technology
    equipment, machines and tools were provided to schools all over the country. Qualified
    teachers were also posted to schools for the teaching of the subject. However, it appears to
    be a consensus of opinion that a positive effect of the subject has not been realized since its
    introduction.
    The implementation of Basic Technology programs is as crucial to its
    development. After the curriculum had been successfully developed and approved as
    an acceptable instrument or working document for fostering the education of the youth for
    the attainment of the societal needs, the school then seeks ways and means of
    implementing the curriculum in order to achieve the curriculum goals. The Basic
    Technology teacher whose responsibility is to implement the curriculum must
    involve the most effective means of implementing it at the classroom level. The
    traditional approach adopted in the teaching of Basic Technology has been designated as
    individual teaching approach. According to Nwoji (2000), individual teaching approach
    is an approach whereby a single teacher teaches class of students many subjects and
    singularly evaluates them. This method makes the teacher the best in the classroom
    setting. However, the negative effect of this Individualistic method of teaching. Basic
    Technology is that the teacher may not effectively teach the subject as he is specialized in
    a particular subject area. Therefore, this topic summarizes the need of team teaching in the
    junior secondary schools.
    Definition of Terms
    Team-Teaching: This can be defined as a group of two or more teachers working
    together, to plan, conduct and evaluate the learning activities for the same group of
    learners. According to Quinn & Kanter (1984) Team-teaching as a team-work between
    two qualified instructors who together make presentations to an audience.
    Basic Technology: According to Obomanu (2001), Basic Technology is the aspect of
    general education curriculum which attempts to provide learning experience that would
    assist students in understanding the industrial and technological aspect of life by offering
    instructions in selected areas such as: metalwork, woodwork, building,
    electrical/electronic, technical-drawing, etc. According to Dibia (2014), Basic
    technology is an integrated and systematic arrangement of all vocational subjects such as
    metalwork, woodwork, building, electrical/electronics, technical-drawing, auto-mobile
    technology, plastics, ceramics, cement and textiles under one subject at the junior
    secondary level.
    Academic Performance: this is the measurement of students’ achievement across
    various academic subjects.
    145 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Junior Secondary School: this is the phase of education in State Secondary Schools of year
    7, 8 and 9 which helps to ensure the bridge between primary and secondary schools are safe,
    strong and consistent for all students.
    Statement of the Problem
    Implementation of Basic Technology program in the classroom is plagued with
    several problems including the choice of the right teaching strategies. This has resulted in
    poor performance of the students in their Junior Secondary school examination in Basic
    Technology. Because of its wide range of discrete subjects that makes it difficult for a single
    teacher in present classroom settings who specialized in a. field of either metal, building,
    Auto-mechanic, woodwork, Electrical/Electronics, Technical Drawing, etc. finds it difficult
    to teach other subjects earlier mentioned because of specific field of specialization. Though
    the same set of teachers are trained and re-trained during micro-teaching, teaching practice,
    under the ground of industrial technical education where the basis of training in all
    aforementioned subjects was taught to the prospecting teachers, training them to be versatile
    in the field for effective teaching of Basic Technology in the junior secondary schools.
    Hence this study is to find out the effect of team teaching in the academic performance of
    students in Basic Technology in Junior Secondary Schools in Omoku.
    The Purpose of Study
    The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of team teaching in the academic
    performance of students in Basic Technology in Junior Secondary Schools in Omoku.
    Specifically, the study will seek to:
16. determine the limitations in teaching Basic Technology by a single teacher.
17. determine the basic requirements for the effective teaching of Basic Technology.
18. determine the performance of students of Basic Technology when taught by a single
    teacher.
19. determine the performance of students of Basic Technology when taught using
    team-teaching approach.
    Significance Of the Study
    This study is primarily aimed at finding out the effect of team teaching on the
    academic performance of the students in Basic Technology in Junior Secondary Schools in
    Omoku, Rivers State. Hence, the result of this study will enable the government to
    incorporate team teaching as a veritable method of enhancing students’ performance in their
    various academic and especially in Basic Technology. In the light of the above, it will give
    room for including team-teaching in Technical Education as to improve the quality of team
    teaching among the students for effective learning to be a role model and a channel of
    change to themselves, the society and the nation in general.
    Research Questions
    In order to investigate the effect of team teaching on academic performances of
    students in Basic Technology in Junior Secondary Schools in Omoku, the following
    research questions were designed to guide the study.
20. What are the limitations in teaching Basic Technology with a single instructor?
21. What are the basic requirements for effective teaching of Basic Technology?
22. To what extent does teaching Basic Technology affect academic performance of
    students by a single instructor?
23. To what extent does teaching Basic Technology affect academic performances of
    students using team teaching approach?
    146 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Scope of the Study
    The scope of this study covers all the students and teachers in selected Junior
    Secondary Schools in Omoku, Ogba /Egbema/Ndoni local government area of Rivers
    State, Nigeria.
    Limitation of Study
    This study was limited to both students and teachers of Basic Technology in Junior
    Secondary Schools in Omoku, Rivers State. However, difficulties were encountered in
    course of the study which included financial constraint, limited literature, materials, time
    constraints, reluctance on the part of the students and teachers to complete and return the
    questionnaires on time, etc.
    Conclusion
    This study has shown that team-teaching is effective and has a positive impact on
    students’ academic performance in basic technology. Based on findings of this study, the
    researcher recommends the following as a Panacea.
    Recommendations
    Team teaching instructional method should be adopted by technology teachers to
    teach concepts in basic technology and ensure that the best of the teachers in the
    cooperative effort of team teaching method of instruction is utilized towards the teaching
    of basic technology.
24. In teaching basic technology, teachers should use more practical and emphasis on
    instructional strategies to teach basic technology.
25. Government should provide junior secondary schools with practical workshops
    where all manipulations will be carried out as to equip them to withstand the test
    of time and promote the growth of the economy.
26. Teachers of basic technology should be well trained and re-trained in different
    aspects of technical education via metal work, wood work, building
    technology, electrical/electronics, mechanical (Automobile),
    technical drawing, plastics, ceramics etc. Hence, making them to become master
    of all will enable them withstand the challenges and the test of time which
    will in turn increase manpower in the economic growth of the nation.
    References
    Federal Republic of Nigeria (1985). National curriculum for Junior secondary school Vol.
    2 (Pre-Vocational Introductory Technology). Ibadan; Heinemann Educational
    Books (Nig.) Limited.
    Karin, G. (2000).Perspectives on team-teaching: a semester 1 independent inquiry. A Peer
    Reviewed Journal, 7(1)
    Ndagana, J.M. & Onifade, S. (2000). Strategies for Motivating students in introductory
    technology in Nigerian junior secondary schools: the case of Obokun Local
    Government Area, Osun State. Nigeria Journal of Education and
    Technology (1). 169-179
    Nwoji (2000), Individual teaching.
    Obawanu (2001),
    Quinn, S.& Kantes, S. (1984).7eom teaching: an alternative to lecture fatigue. (JC 850
    005) Paper in an abstract: Innovation Abstracts (Eric Document Reproductive
    Service No. ED 251 159)
    Udo (2004), Vocational Education.
    Uwameiye, R & Onyewadume, M.A. (1999). Work visits in the South Western Nigeria
    147 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
    Junior Secondary Schools: A Neglected Challenge? Journal of Vocational Education
    and Training.51.4. 573-587.
    Uwameiye, R. (1993). Some factors militating against the effective teaching of introductory
    technology in Bendel State schools. International Journal of Educational Research, 5
    Welch, M., Brownell, K. & Sheridan, S, M. (1999). What’s the score and game plan on teaming
    in schools? A re view of the literature on team teaching on school-based problemsolving
    teams. Remedial and Special Education. 20. 1.36-50.
    148 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)

• even if the ripening is not evidently conspicuous, Kipkorir, (2014); Kader, (1992).
  Techniques of Maturity Indices Determination in Fruits and Vegetables (Okra & Banana)
  There are many techniques used in the determination and analysis of maturity index of
  fruits and vegetables. The techniques assay distinct components of fruits and vegetables. The
  Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC 2000) asserted that fruits and vegetables
  indices can be determined through the following techniques as shown in the table below:
  99 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
  Elapsed days from full bloom Computation
  Mean heat units Computation
  Development of abscission layer Visual or force separation
  Surface structure Visual
  Size Various measuring device/weight
  Specific gravity Density gradient Solutions, flotation Techniques
  vol/wt
  Shape Dimensions, ratio charts.
  Solidity Feel, bulk density, gammarays, x-rays
  TEXTURAL PROPERTIES
  Firmness Firmness testers., deformation
  Tenderness Tenderometer
  Toughness Texterrometer, fibro meter (also chemical methods for
  determination of poly saccharides).
  Colour Internal Light tranmitance, delayed light emission Visual examination.
  Colour external Light reflectance Visual colour charts.
  COMPOSITIONAL FACTORS
  Dry matter Sampling, drying
  Starch content KI test, other Chemical tests.
  Sugar content Head refractometer, Chemical tests
  Acid content Titration, chemical tests
  Juice content Extraction
  Oil content Extraction, chemical tests
  Tannin content Ferric chloride test.
  Internal ethylene Gas chromatography.
  Table 2: Methods of maturity determination in fruits and vegetables.
  The maturity indices are determined and analyzed via distinct technique. The presence
  of one index or the combination of two or more certifies the maturity of the produce.
  Horticultural Maturity Indices of Crop Produce
  Horticularlly, a particular crop produce may manifest maturity index (matured or ripen)
  100 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  at any stage of the life cycle depending on the desired part or parts. Some mature at the early
  stage of growth (sprout). For example, lettuce, asparagus, etc. While others become matured at
  the mid-stage of their growth such as yam, cassava, etc. Also, crops like squash, zucchini, etc,
  combine two or more developmental stages to fully mature. Akinwand, et al., (2008) and
  Champ, et al., (2008) reported that crop produce could be matured at different stages of growth
  like stem and leaves, inflorescence, partial development of fruit and fully developed fruits.
  They diagrammatically represented and analyzed the stages thus:
  Diagram 1: Different stages of crop development
  The illustration and the analysis above reveal that maturity of field crops occurs in
  different stages, depending on crop and the part(s) to be consumed. Some crops mature in few
  weeks after germination (sprouting of seedling). While others go through two or three stages to
  get matured. At the final stage (bearing), ripening has fully been initiated; senescence of fruits
  occurs (pear, apple, tomato, etc). However, at bearing stage, crops like cucumber, watermelon,
  melon (cucumbitaea) are ready for consumption and the death of the crop is eminent based on
  their life cycle. This condition is common in some fruits and vegetable crops.
  Determination of Maturity Indices on Tuber and Root Crops (Cassava and Yam)
  The basic maturity index for cassava is the size of the tuber and the aging of the lower
  leaves which eventually turns yellow (National Agricultural Research Institute, (NARI) 2013).
  Other physical maturity index of cassava is the cracking of the soil as a result of the size of the
  tuber(s). Yam is slightly different from cassava in physical properties. The physical index of
  yam include drying off of leaves and vines, death of the crop and cracking of the soil (Degras,
  1993), Akinwande, et al., (2007). In combination, Treche and Agbo-Egbe, (1996) declared that
  the chemical characteristics of tuber and root crops are the same and are obvious maturity
  indices approaches for determination. Starch is converted to sugar during maturity. It is a
  reaction between starch and iodine to produce blue or purple colours.
  Determination of Maturity Indices in Spice Crops (Pepper and Galic)
  Most spice crops are not commonly grown by farmers. Spice crops are considered
  secondary in nutrition (Fasoyiro, 2014). The maturity index of pepper is characterized with the
  fruits turning to red or yellow, depending on the variety of the crop and its lifecycle. The leaves
  of garlic turns yellow and finally brown, stunted growth, wilting and death. Food and
  Initiation Development Death
  Early stage (spout) – Leaves and stems
  Asparagus, celery,
  Lettuce, cabbage, etc
  Mid stage (vegetative growth) – Inflorescence
  Broccoli, cauliflower, artichoke
  Bearing stage (maturity index/ripening) – Partially developed fruit
  Okra, cucumber, sweet corn,
  Beans.
  Death stage (Senescence) – Fully developed fruits
  Citrus, apple, tomato, pear.
  101 A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal Volume 6, No. 2 (2019/2020)
  Agricultural Organization (FAO 2002) postulated that spice maturity indices vary according to
  the food storage organ; depend whether it is fruit, leafy or bulb. This implies that storage is
  above or underground.
  Table 3: Methods of maturity index determination in cassava and yam.
  The most common methods used by farmers are visual and computation. The dryness of
  the leaves is a maturity index. However, retarded growth and death of crop is associated to yam,
  pepper and garlic (see table 3) but cassava does not die-off after showing signs of maturity.
  Importance of Maturity Indices
  The importance of maturity indices are: